Hutchison Essentials of Human Behavior – Perspectives, Theories, and Social Work Implications

Developmental Perspective

  • Defines how human behavior unfolds across the life course and how people change and stay the same over time.
  • Key claim: human development is seen to occur in clearly defined stages based on a complex interaction of biological, psychological, and social processes.
  • Core frameworks:
    • Life span or life cycle theory
    • Based in psychology
    • Focuses on the inner life during age-related stages
    • Epigenetic model of human development (Erikson)
    • Psychological unfolding of personality takes place in sequences influenced by biological, psychological, and social forces
    • Life course perspective
    • Conceptualizes the life course as a social, rather than psychological, phenomenon
    • Unique for each individual
    • Some common life course markers, or transitions, related to shared social and historical contexts

Direct Instruction and Behavioral Perspectives

  • Direct Instruction (as presented on the slide)
  • Response (noted with typographical error in the transcript)
  • Positive Reinforcement
  • Model ing
  • Observational Learning
  • Negative Punishment
  • Stimulus
  • Operant Conditioning
  • Shaping
  • Bandura
  • Behaviorism
  • Classical Conditioning
  • Social Learning Theory
  • Law of Effect
  • Pavlov
  • Negative Reinforcement
  • Associative Learning
  • Reward System
  • Positive Punishment
  • Thorndike
  • Skinner
  • Social Behavioral Perspective: Human behavior is learned as individuals interact with their environments.
  • Overall idea: behavior is shaped by interactions with the environment and consequences.

Three Major Versions of Behavioral Theory

  • Classical conditioning theory
  • Operant conditioning theory
  • Cognitive social learning theory

The 3 Major Types of Behavioral Learning

  • Cognitive: Learning through mental processes and understanding
  • Classical Conditioning: A neutral stimulus is associated with a natural response
  • Operant Conditioning: A response is increased or decreased due to reinforcement or punishment
  • Observational Learning: Learning occurs through observation and imitation of others

Social Behavioral Perspective: Cognitive Social Learning Theory

  • Core idea: learning occurs within a social context and through cognitive processes such as thoughts, expectations, and beliefs

Self-Efficacy and Related Constructs

  • Self-efficacy: A sense of personal competence
  • Efficacy expectation: An expectation that one can personally accomplish a goal
  • Agency: The capacity to intentionally make things happen
  • Personal Proxy
  • Collective

Humanistic Perspective

  • Considered the third force of psychology
  • Includes humanistic psychology and existential psychology

Humanistic Approach – Carl Rogers

  • Key core conditions (attitudes the counselor displays that show acceptance and worth of the client):
    • Empathy
    • Congruence (genuineness and realness of the counselor)
    • Unconditional Positive Regard (UPR)
  • The three core conditions:
    • Empathy: frame of reference; counselor understands the client’s experience
    • Congruence: counselor is genuine; builds trust
    • Unconditional Positive Regard: nonjudgmental acceptance

Existential Psychology – Four Primary Themes

  • Each person is unique and has value
  • Suffering is a necessary part of human growth
  • Personal growth results from staying in the immediate moment
  • Personal growth requires commitment
  • Distinguishing feature: emphasis on suffering as a driver of growth differentiates existentialism from humanism

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

  • Five levels (Maslow’s hierarchy):
    • 1.1. Physiological needs: hunger, thirst, sex
    • 2.2. Safety needs: avoidance of pain and anxiety; security
    • 3.3. Belongingness and love needs: affection and intimacy
    • 4.4. Esteem needs: self-respect, adequacy, mastery
    • 5.5. Self-actualization: becoming fully what one can be; altruism, beauty, creativity, justice
  • Maslow’s theory ties to a broader view of motivation and development
  • Maslow coined the phrase “positive psychology” and contributed to its focus on strengths and optimal functioning
  • Seligman is associated with Learned Helplessness

Learned Helplessness and Students

  • Quote: “Students who are repeatedly exposed to school failure are particularly at risk for the development of learned helplessness.” (Sutherland & Singh, 2004)
  • How to know if a student is experiencing learned helplessness:
    • Takes little independent initiative
    • Prefers easy problems and avoids hard problems
    • Makes negative or degrading comments about own ability
    • If fails one part of a task, is certain to fail the entire task
    • Gives up easily; stops trying or avoids difficult academic work
    • Does not respond with pride when talking about academics
    • Performs poorly despite having ability
  • Emphasis on deprivation in the classroom and its impact on motivation and performance

The Merits of Multiple Perspectives

  • Psychology and sociology offer a variety of patterned ways of thinking about changing person–environment configurations
  • These perspectives are tools to understand human behavior in real-world contexts
  • Each perspective is useful in different social work situations
  • Encourages a broad general knowledge base for practice

Big Ideas

  • Systems
    • Systems are made up of interrelated members forming a linked whole
    • Each part affects other parts and the system as a whole
    • All systems are subsystems of larger systems
    • Systems maintain boundaries that give them identity
    • Dynamic interactions within and among systems produce stability and change, sometimes rapid or dramatic
  • Conflict
    • All social systems have inequalities in the distribution of valued resources
    • Power is unequally divided; powerful groups impose their will on subordinates
    • Conflict underlies unequal social relationships; subordinate groups may become alienated
    • Social change may occur when subordinate groups recognize inequality and take action to increase power
  • Exchange and Choice
    • Individuals and groups engage in social exchanges of resources and make choices to pursue them
    • Choices based on self-interest and community interest
    • Exchanges are based on reason, emotion, values, norms, and expectations
    • Reciprocity governs many exchanges, though relationships can be unbalanced
    • Power derives from unequal resources in exchange
  • Additional Big Ideas: Social Constructionist
    • People construct meaning, sense of self, and a social world through interactions
    • Social reality is constructed; multiple realities exist across contexts
    • Interaction is grounded in language, culture, and history; meanings can be modified through interaction
  • Psychodynamic
    • Emotions play a central role; both unconscious and conscious processes motivate behavior
    • Early childhood experiences shape lifelong patterns of emotion
    • People may become overwhelmed by internal/external demands; ego defenses are common
  • Developmental
    • Human development occurs in clearly defined, age-graded stages
    • Each stage is qualitatively different and builds on earlier stages
    • Development is a complex interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors
    • Moving between stages involves new tasks, status changes, and role transitions
  • Humanistic (as a Big Idea)
    • Emphasizes growth, meaning, and personal potential; internal frame of reference is key to understanding behavior

Implications for Social Work Practice

  • In assessment, consider recent system changes affecting the client system
  • Help families and groups renegotiate unsatisfactory system boundaries
  • Develop networks of support for people experiencing challenging life transitions
  • In assessment, examine power arrangements and forces of oppression and the alienation they cause; advocate to challenge dominance
  • Be aware of power dynamics with clients; for nonvoluntary clients, discuss limits and uses of power explicitly
  • In assessment, consider social exchanges and network patterns; use network maps where useful
  • Help clients renegotiate patterns of exchange when necessary; recognize both reason and emotion in policy processes
  • Start by understanding how clients view their situations; engage them in thinking about the environments in which meanings and situations developed
  • When belief systems differ, facilitate sincere discussions and negotiated action
  • Support clients in expressing emotional conflicts and understanding their relation to past events when appropriate
  • Promote self-awareness and self-control where needed; help locate and use environmental resources
  • Consider familial, cultural, and historical contexts in developmental transitions; view human development as lifelong and unique
  • Recognize a variety of learning processes; be sensitive to learned helplessness as a barrier to change
  • Be mindful of social justice and fairness before engaging in behavior modification
  • Acknowledge potential gaps between your assessment and the client’s own; value self-determination
  • Focus on strengths rather than pathology; acknowledge learned hopefulness as well as learned helplessness