English Phonology Lecture Notes

Stress refers to the relative prominence of a syllable within a sequence of syllables.
It is a suprasegmental or prosodic feature, meaning it applies to a syllable rather than an individual sound (segment).
A stressed syllable is perceived as more prominent and is produced with more muscular energy.
Prominence is associated with:
- Loudness
- Length
- Pitch
Example: "table" - the first syllable is stressed, hence louder, longer and with a relatively higher pitch.

Primary Stress:
- The strongest type of stress.
- Marked by a high vertical line ( ' ).
- Example: a'round
Secondary Stress:
- Stress weaker than primary stress but stronger than unstressed.
- Marked by a low vertical line ( . ).
- Example: .magazine

Strong Syllable:
- Has a rhyme with:
  - A syllable peak which is a long vowel or diphthong with or without a coda (the consonants that follow the vowel).
    - Example: amazing /ə'mei.zɪŋ/
  - A syllable peak which is I, e, æ, ɔ, or ʊ followed by at least one consonant.
    - Example: rusty /'rʌs.ti/
Weak Syllable:
- Examples:
  - testa /'tes.tə/
  - i, u without a coda
    - easy /'i:.zi/
  - influence /'ɪn.flu.əns/
Key Points:
- Strong syllables may or may not be stressed.
- Weak syllables must be unstressed.
- A stressed syllable must be a strong syllable (strong syllable attracts stress), but not all strong syllables are stressed.

Two-Syllable Nouns:
- Usually stressed on the first syllable unless the first syllable is weak and the second is strong.
  - Examples: present, China, table
Two-Syllable Verbs:
- Usually stressed on the second syllable unless the final syllable is weak or contains /ɪ/.
  - Examples: to export, to decide, to begin

N+N: The primary stress is usually on the first part
- e.g. 'car-ferry
Adj + N: the primary stress is usually on the first part
- e.g. 'lighthouse, 'tightrope
Adj + -ed: the primary stress is usually on the second part
- e.g. heavy-handed
If the first part is a number, stress the second part:
- e.g. first-class; three-'wheeler
When compounds function as adverbs → final-stressed
- e.g. head-'first, down'stream
When compounds function as verbs and have an adverbial first part → final-stressed
- e.g. down'grade, ill-'treat

The following suffixes themselves usually carry primary stress:
- -ee: evacuee
- -ese: journalese
- -eer: mountaineer
- -ette: launderette
- -esque: picturesque
Stress on second to last syllable for words ending in:
- -(e)ous: courageous (cf. courage)
- -ial: presidential (cf. president)
- -ion: education (cf. educate)
- -ic: climatic (cf. climate)
- -ian: musician (cf. music)
Stress on third to last syllable for words ending in:
- -ity: readability
- -ise/-ize: modernise

Three primary tones:
- Falling
- Rising
- Level
Combined tones:
- Fall-rise
- Rise-fall
In the English language, tones do not change the meaning of a word; they help us express emotions and attitudes.

Falling Tone:
- To indicate certainty and give an impression of 'finality.'
  - Example: A: Are you with me? B: 'Yes
Rising Tone:
- To invite the interlocutor to continue.
  - Example: A: Were you back yesterday? B: No
Level Tone:
- To convey a feeling of saying something routine or uninteresting.
  - Example: A: Have you brushed your teeth? B: _Yes
Fall-Rise:
- To suggest reservations about what is said.
  - Example: A: I guess he may come. B: Maybe
Rise-Fall:
- To show surprise.
  - Example: A: I have not dined out for months. B: ^Wow
Note:
- In multisyllabic words, the tone is placed on the most strongly stressed syllable.
  - Examples: algain, to/night

The influence exercised by one sound segment upon the articulation of another so that the sounds become more alike or identical.
It usually affects consonants.
Types of assimilation:
- Assimilation of place
- Assimilation of manner
- Assimilation of voice

A sound takes on the place of articulation of a neighbouring sound.
- Example:
  - that person /ðæt pɜːsən/ → /ðæp pɜːsən/ (alveolar plosive → bilabial plosive)
  - light blue /laɪt bluː/ → /laɪp bluː/ (alveolar plosive → bilabial plosive)
  - this shoe /ðɪs ʃuː/ ⇒ /ðɪʃ ʃuː/ (alveolar fricative → palatal fricative)

A sound takes on the manner of articulation of a neighboring sound.
- Example:
  - good night /ɡʊd naɪt/ → /ɡʊn naɪt/ (alveolar plosive → alveolar nasal)

Progressive Assimilation:
- A sound takes on the feature of another sound preceding it.
Regressive Assimilation:
- A sound takes on the feature of another sound following it.