History of Ethiopia and the Horn Study Notes

Nature and Uses of Historical Study

• Definitions and Etymology:     * The word "history" is derived from the Greek term istoria, signifying "learning through enquiry" or "an account of one‘s inquiries."     * In general usage, it refers to all human past events, distinguishing between what actually happened (the past) and the reconstructed accounts written by historians.     * History is defined as a systematic study and organized knowledge of the human past, involving the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information.

• Methodology and Periodization:     * Historians interpret sources to find patterns and establish meaning rather than just listing chronologies.     * Periodization: Historians divide the past into distinct periods based on significant developments. Conventional divisions include Ancient, Medieval, and Modern.     * The primary focus is the interaction between human society and the environment over time, marking the continuous process of change.

• Key Historical Figures:     * Herodotus ($c. 484-425\,BC$): Known as the "father of history" for systematically investigating events.     * Thucydides ($c. 455-400\,BC$): A major early figure in Greek historical tradition.     * Sima Qian ($145–86\,BC$): The foundational figure in Chinese historical writing.     * Leopold Von Ranke ($1795–1886$): Regarded as the "father of modern historiography" for establishing history as an independent academic discipline with scientific research methods in Berlin.

• Uses and Abuses of History:     * Understanding the Present: History serves as a storehouse of information to analyze human behavior and modern problems.     * Identity: Communities define themselves and orient their relationships with others through historical memory.     * Tolerance and Open-Mindedness: Studying diverse societies reduces cultural provincialism.     * Critical Skills: It develops research, evidence evaluation, coherent argumentation, and communication skills.     * Abuse: Occurs through deliberate manipulation of the past to fit current political agendas (history written "backwards").

Sources and Methods of Historical Study

• Classification of Sources:     * Primary Sources: Original or firsthand traces of the past proximal to the event in time and space. Examples: Manuscripts, diaries, letters, minutes, inscriptions, chronicles, hagiographies, court records, maps, photos, coins, fossils, and buildings.     * Secondary Sources: Second-hand accounts written after the event, providing interpretations. Examples: Articles, books, textbooks, biographies, theses, and reports.

• Oral Data:     * Oral Tradition: Information transmitted across generations (e.g., folk songs, sayings).     * Oral History: Testimonies of lived experiences, serving as primary source material.

• Critical Evaluation:     * Primary sources must be verified for originality and authenticity (checking for forgeries).     * Secondary sources are examined for the reliability of their reconstructions.     * Oral data must be cross-checked to account for distortions over time.

Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn

• Early Written Sources:     * Periplus of the Erythrean Sea (1st Century AD): Anonymous author.     * Christian Topography (6th Century AD): Written by Cosmas Indicopleustes, a Greek sailor.     * Earliest Ethiopian Material: Seventh-century illustrated manuscript from Abba Gerima monastery; 13th-century manuscript from Haiq Estifanos monastery.

• Indigenous Traditions:     * Hagiographies: Biographies of saints (both Christian and Muslim) containing "marginalia" (historical anecdotes). Example: The life of Shaykh Ja‘far Bukko for indigenous Islam in Wollo.     * Chronicles: Written by court scribes. Earliest: The Glorious Victories of Amde-Tsion. Last: Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu.

• Foreign Accounts:     * Arabic: Al-Masudi (10th c.) and Ibn Battuta (14th c.) described East African coasts. Shihab al-Din's Futuh al-Habasha (Conquest of Abyssinia, 16th c.) and Al-Haymi (17th c.).     * European: Francisco Alvarez (The Prester John of the Indies, 16th c.) and James Bruce (Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile, 18th c.).     * Hiob Ludolf ($1624-1704$): Founder of Ethiopian studies in Europe, wrote Historia Aethiopica based on info from Abba Gorgorios (Abba Gregory).

• Modern Professionalism:     * Early 20th Century: Aleqa Taye, Aleqa Atsme Giorgis, Debtera Fisseha-Giorgis. Later: Negadrases Afework Gebre-Iyesus and Gebre-Hiwot Baykedagn.     * Post-Liberation: Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria (8 works), Yilma Deressa (History of Ethiopia in the 16th Century), and Mahteme-Selassie Wolde-Meskel (Zikre Neger).     * Institutionalization ($1963$): Opening of the Department of History and the Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) at Haile Selassie I University. Richard Pankhurst was the first IES Director.

Geographical Context of the Region

• The Horn of Africa: Comprises Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia.

• Principal Drainage Systems:     1. Nile System: White Nile and Blue Nile (Abay) meeting in Khartoum.     2. Awash System: Links Central Ethiopian highlands to the Danakil Depression.     3. Rift Valley Lakes System: Strings of lakes from Lake Ziway to Lake Turkana ($Rudolf$).     4. Gibe-Gojeb-Omo System: Links southwest Ethiopia to northern Kenya.     5. Shebele and Genale System: Originates in Eastern highlands; the Genale (Jubba) enters the Indian Ocean, while the Shebele disappears in the sand.

• Environmental Zones:     * Eastern Lowlands: Narrow coastal strips, Danakil Depression, Ogaden, and Somalia. Hot and dry conditions.     * Highland Massif: Mountains and plateaus from northern Eritrea to southern Ethiopia, divided by the Rift Valley.     * Western Foothills: Hot lowlands along the Sudan border, traditionally characterized by thick forests.

Human Evolution and the Neolithic Revolution

• Fossil Remains in the Rift Valley:     * Chororapithecus ($10\,million\,BP$): Found in Anchar, West Hararghe ($2007$).     * Ardipithecus kadabba ($5.8-5.2\,million\,BP$) and Ardipithicus ramidus ($4.2\,million\,BP$) in Afar.     * Australopithecus afarensis (Lucy/Dinkinesh, $3.18\,million\,BP$): $40\%$ complete, $30\,kg$, $1.07\,meters$ tall ($found\,1974$).     * Selam ($3.3\,million\,BP$): Found at Dikika ($2000$).     * Homo habilis ($1.9\,million\,BP$): Skillful human found in Lower Omo.     * Homo erectus ($1.6\,million\,BP$): Found at Melka Kunture and Konso Gardula ($900-1100\,cc\,brain$).     * Modern Homo sapiens (Kibish): Dated to $195,000\,BP$ ($oldest\,in\,the\,world$).

• Cultural Evolution (Stone Ages):     * Mode I (Oldowan): Crude tools produced by direct percussion ($2.52\,million\,BP$).     * Mode II (Acheulean): Bifacial, pointed tools ($1.7\,million\,BP$).     * Mode III (Sangoon): Refined tools made of obsidian ($300,000\,BP$).     * Paleolithic ($3.4\,million\,to\,11,000\,BP$): Shelter in caves, division of labor.     * Neolithic Revolution ($10,000-6,000\,BP$): Shift from hunting/gathering to sedentary life and domestication (teff, dagussa, nug, ensete, cattle, and sheep).

Peoples, Languages, and Religious Processes

• Linguistic Classification:     * Afro-Asiatic Super family:         * Cushitic: Beja (Northern), Agaw (Central), Oromo, Somali, Afar (Eastern).         * Semitic: Ge'ez, Tigre, Tigrigna (North); Amharic, Argobba, Harari, Gurage, Gafat (South).         * Omotic: Wolayta, Gamo, Kafa, Ari, Shekkacho.     * Nilo-Saharan family: Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kunama, Majang, Nu‘er, Nyangatom.

• Indigenous Religions:     * Waqeffanna (Oromo): Belief in Waqa (Supreme Being) and Ayyana (spirits like Atete for fecundity). Ritual centers include the Galma and the Irrecha festival.     * Fandanano (Hadiya): Supreme Being Wa’a; eyes represent the sun and moon.     * Gurage: Waq/Goita (Supreme Being) and Bozha (thunder deity).     * Keficho: Yero (Supreme Being) and Dejo sacrifice.

• World Religions:     * Judaism: Bete-Israel (House of Israel), following Old Testament religion with origins debated (Dan Tribe migration vs. local converts).     * Christianity: State religion in $334\,AD$ under King Ezana. Frumentius ($Kasate Birhane$) was the first Bishop. Nine Saints expanded it in the 5th century.     * Islam: First Hijra refugees arrived in Aksum in $615\,AD$. King Armah ($Ahmed al-Nejash$) granted asylum. Expanded via trade routes through Zeila and the Dahlak Islands.

Ancient States and Socio-Cultural Achievements

• State of Punt: Earliest recorded state, mentioned in Egyptian records (Pharaoh Sahure and Queen Hatshepsut). Exported myrrh, gold, and ebony.

• Da’amat: Pre-Aksumite state south of Aksum (Yeha). Used the title Mukarib and worshipped South Arabian gods like Almouqah.

• Aksumite State ($c. 200\,BC‒700\,AD$):     * Major port at Adulis; controlled trade from the Nile to the Red Sea.     * Minted coins in gold, silver, and bronze (e.g., Endybis, Aphilas).     * Kaleb ($r. 500-35$) expanded to South Arabia to defend Christians.     * Decline due to Muslim Arab control of Red Sea trade ($702\,AD$ destruction of Adulis), ecological degradation, and internal rebellions (Beja and Gudit).

• Zagwe Dynasty ($c. 1150‒1270$):     * Agaw rulers centered in Roha ($Lalibela$).     * Known for 11 monolithic and rock-hewn churches (rebuilding a "new Jerusalem").     * Overthrown by Yekunno-Amlak claiming "Solomonic" blood.

• Other States (East/South):     * Damot: Strong 13th-century kingdom under King Motalami.     * Muslim Sultanates: Shewa (Makhzumite), Fatagar, Dawaro, Bali, and Ifat (Walasma dynasty).

• Cultural Achievements:     * Architecture: Aksumite stelae (tallest is $33\,meters$). Stele 2 returned from Rome in $2005$.     * Writing: Evolution from Sabean consonant-only script to vocalized Ge‘ez alphasyllabary by the 4th century AD.     * Calendars: Oromo (astronomical observations of moons/stars), Sidama (13 months), and the Ethiopian Solar Calendar ($12\,months\,of\,30\,days\,plus\,Pagume$).

The Solomonid Dynasty and Medieval Dynamics ($13th–16th$ Centuries)

• Restoration: Yekunno-Amlak ($r. 1270-85$) ended Zagwe rule. Legitimacy anchored in the Kibre Negest legend.
• Amba Gishen: To prevent succession wars, potential heirs were sequestered on this flat-topped mountain in Wollo.
• Amde-Tsion ($r. 1314-44$):     * Known as the "Hundredth King" for his vast conquests (Damot, Hadiya, Gojjam, Ifat).     * Established the Chewa (military regiments) for regional control.
• Administration: Loose confederation with three concentric circles; the innermost being the core provinces under direct royal control.
• Conflict with Sultanate of Adal: Centered on trade route control. Key battle of Yeguba ($1445$) under Zara-Yaqob against Ahmed Badlay.
• Cultural Integration: Roving courts (mobile royal camps) acted as melting pots. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church and monastic networks (Iyesus Mo’a, Tekle-Haymanot) served as unifying forces.

Conflicts and Transformations in the 16th and 17th Centuries

• Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi ($Gragn$):     * Unified Afar and Somali groups. Defeated Emperor Lebne-Dengel at the Battle of Shimbra Kure ($1529$).     * Death at the Battle of Woyna Dega ($1543$) by Gelawdewos mark the end of Adal dominance.
• Foreign Intervention: Portugal sent $400$ soldiers under Christopher da Gama to support the Christians; Ottomans supported Adal with musketeers.
• Jesuit Interlude: Susenyos adopted Catholicism ($1622$) hoping for military aid. Civil war ensued; Fasiledes ($1632-67$) expelled Jesuits and introduced the "Closed-Door" policy.
• Population Movements:     * Afar/Somali: Prompted by conflict and environmental pressure.     * Oromo Gadaa Movement: Organized northward expansion ($1522-1618$) through Butta wars. Key centers: Madda Walabu and the Oda assemblies. Socialization via Moggasa (amalgamation) and Guddifacha (adoption).

Gondarine Period and Zemene-Mesafint

• Gondarine Period ($1636-1780s$):     * Fasiledes established Gondar as a permanent capital. Peak glory under Iyasu the Great.     * Known for "Fasil Gebbi" castles and the "Ethiopian Renaissance" in art and literature.
• Zemene-Mesafint (Era of Princes, $1786-1853$):     * Commenced with the rise of the Yejju (Warraseh) dynasty under Ras Ali I.     * Characterized by political decentralization and puppet emperors in Gondar.     * Ended by Kasa Hailu (Tewodros II) at the Battle of Ayshal ($1853$).

The Making of Modern Ethiopia and Unification

• Tewodros II ($r. 1855-68$): Unified central provinces. Attempted modernizations (ordnance at Gafat, "Sebastopol" cannon). Committed suicide at Maqdela after British intervention.
• Yohannes IV ($r. 1872-89$): Focused on decentralized unity and religious homogenization (Council of Boru Meda). Defeated Egyptians at Gundet ($1875$) and Gura ($1876$). Died at Metemma fighting the Mahdists.
• Menilek II ($r. 1889-1913$):     * Territorial expansion into the South (Arsi, Harar, Wolayta, Kafa).     * Battle of Adwa ($1896$): Decisive defeat of Italian colonial forces under Baratieri.     * Modernization: Railway, post, telephone, Bank of Abyssinia, ministerial system.
• Italian Occupation ($1936-41$): Mussolini's invasion following the Walwal incident. Resistance led by patriots (Abebe Aregay, Belay Zeleke, etc.) and liberated with British aid.

Post-1941 Ethiopia and the 1974 Revolution

• Haile Selassie I: Consolidation of autocracy. Federated Eritrea with Ethiopia in $1952$ (dissolved $1962$). Heavy reliance on the USA (Point Four Agreement, Qagnew Base).
• Social Unrest: 1960 Coup attempt by Neway brothers. Peasant rebellions in Bale, Gojjam, and the Woyane revolt in Tigray. The Student Movement slogan: "Land to the Tiller."
• The Derg Regime ($1974-91$):     * Established after the deposition of Haile Selassie ($September 12, 1974$).     * Radical reforms: Nationalization of land/banks. "Red Terror" against the EPRP.     * Somali-Ethiopian War ($1977-78$) ended with Cuban and Soviet assistance.
• Fall of the Derg ($1991$): Defeat at the hands of the EPRDF and EPLF. Mengistu Haile-Mariam fled to Zimbabwe.
• Transitional Period: 1991 Charter established the TGE; Eritrea gained independence in $1993$; 1994 Constitution created the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia ($FDRE$).