Notes on Cognitive Development Theories
Theories of Cognitive Development
Overview of major theories:
Piaget
Information Processing
Core Knowledge
Vygotsky
Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
Influenced by biological ideas
Worked with Alfred Binet (creator of the first operational intelligence test)
General Concepts in Cognitive Development
Cognitive structures: The mental frameworks that organize knowledge.
Schemes: Cognitive structures or frameworks that help organize and interpret information.
Operations: Procedures that are used to combine and manipulate information.
Cognitive processes:
Organization: The process of arranging information into categories or frameworks.
Adaptation: The process of adjustment to new information or experiences.
Assimilation: Incorporating new experiences into existing cognitive schemes.
Accommodation: Adjusting existing schemes to fit new information that does not conform to previous schemes.
Equilibration: The process of balancing assimilation and accommodation to create stable understanding.
Scheme Example in Infants
Babies often use a "banging" scheme to explore their environment.
Example of assimilation: Baby incorporates a new object into their existing banging scheme.
Example of accommodation: A new object does not fit the existing scheme, requiring a change in strategy.
Cognitive Development in Young Children
Lilly’s Experience:
Sees a cow and mistakenly identifies it as a "doggie" (identified through assimilation).
Experiences cognitive disequilibrium upon realizing it has udders and gives milk.
Equilibration is achieved when she accommodates by changing the dog scheme to create a new cow scheme.
Characteristics of Piaget's Stages of Development
Each stage is qualitatively different from others.
Stages build upon each other: earlier stages lay the groundwork for the next.
They follow an invariant sequence: fixed order of development.
Stages are universal: applicable to all children regardless of culture.
Sensorimotor Period (Birth to 2 Years)
Stages of Sensorimotor Development:
Reflexes (birth to 1 month)
Primary Circular Reactions (1 to 4 months): Actions centered on the infant's own body (e.g., thumb sucking).
Secondary Circular Reactions (4 to 8 months): Actions directed towards the environment (e.g., squeezing a toy to hear sounds).
Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions (8 to 12 months): Combining two schemes (e.g., looking for a hidden toy).
Tertiary Circular Reactions (12 to 18 months): Exploring new ways to achieve the same goal (e.g., hitting a drum with different objects).
New Means through Mental Combinations (18 months to 2 years): Use of symbols to represent objects.
Key Concepts in Sensorimotor Stage
Object Permanence: Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, represented by “out of sight, out of mind.”
A-not-B Error: The tendency of infants to search for an object in the place they last found it (A), rather than where they last saw it being hidden (B).
Preoperational Period (2 - 7 Years)
Characteristics:
Egocentrism: Difficulty in seeing perspectives other than their own.
Animism: Assigning human qualities to inanimate objects.
Intuitive reasoning: Making judgments based on appearance rather than logic.
Rigidity of thought:
Centration: Focusing on one aspect and ignoring others.
States vs. transformations: Confusing the physical state of objects and the processes of transformation.
Lack of reversibility: Not understanding that actions can be reversed.
Example of Egocentrism and Animism
Piaget asked a child if the sun moves. The child said yes, believing it follows them and can hear what they say, reflecting animism and egocentric reasoning.
Concepts of Conservation
Conservation: Understanding that certain properties of objects remain the same despite changes in form or arrangement. Common forms include:
Conservation of liquids: Children fail to understand that two equal amounts of liquid remain equal when one is poured into a taller glass.
Conservation of number and shape reflected similarly in tests with checkers and clay.
Concrete Operations Period (7 – 11 Years)
Characteristics:
Ability to understand conservation and justification.
Begin to resist counter-suggestion.
Can deal with multiple dimensions in tasks.
Classification in Concrete Operations
Involves multiple classifications:
Examples include categorizing objects based on color and shape.
Class Inclusion: Understanding hierarchical relationships between classes.
Superordinate class: Example of fruits.
Subordinate classes: Specific types of fruits, such as apples and oranges.
Formal Operations Period (12+ Years)
Characteristics:
Development of hypothetical reasoning.
Ability to make complex deductions and conduct hypothesis testing.
Hypothetical Problem Example: Extra-eye Problem
Participants are asked where they would place a third eye on their body. Drawings and explanations reveal different levels of cognitive development.
Inhelder and Piaget’s Pendulum Problem
Examines the ability to understand variables and the mechanics behind problems, further illustrating formal operational thought.
Information Processing Model
Components:
Hardware: Physical aspects like circuits and microchips (brain, sensory system).
Software: Mental strategies and rules used for cognitive tasks.
Aspects of Information Processing
Types of memory:
Working memory: Short-term retention of information for active processing.
Long-term memory: The capacity to store information over extended periods.
Executive functioning: Higher-order cognitive processes.
Inhibitory control: Ability to control one’s attention and behavior.
Cognitive flexibility: Capability to switch between thinking about two different concepts.
Strategy use: Application of cognitive methods to solve problems.
Why Memory Improves with Development
Improvements in memory can be attributed to:
Basic memory processes.
Encoding techniques.
Speed of processing information.
Use of strategies like rehearsal, semantic organization, and elaboration.