Unit 8 Social Psychology Flashcards
Attributional Theory
Definition: Attributional Theory refers to the framework used to understand how individuals interpret and assign causes to behaviors or events.
Types of Attribution:
Internal Attribution: Assigning the cause of behavior to personal factors such as traits, motives, or intentions.
External Attribution: Assigning the cause of behavior to situational factors or environmental influences.
Actor-Observer Bias
Definition: A cognitive bias where individuals attribute their own actions to external factors while attributing others’ actions to internal factors.
Implications: This can lead to misunderstandings in social interactions as people perceive their actions as justifiable due to circumstances but other's actions as fundamentally flawed.
Fundamental Attribution Error
Definition: The tendency to overemphasize personal characteristics and underestimate situational factors in explaining others' behavior.
Example: Observing someone fail at their job and attributing it to laziness (internal) rather than a lack of training or poor working conditions (external).
Internal Locus of Control
Definition: The belief that one has control over their life and the outcomes of events are primarily determined by their own actions.
Characteristics: Individuals with an internal locus of control tend to feel responsible for their successes and failures.
External Locus of Control
Definition: The belief that external forces, such as fate, luck, or other people, dictate the outcomes of events.
Characteristics: Individuals with an external locus of control often feel powerless and may blame outside circumstances for their life events.
Self-Serving Bias
Definition: A cognitive bias that involves attributing positive events to one’s own character but attributing negative events to external factors.
Example: A student might credit their high exam score to their intelligence while blaming their low score on poor teaching.
Explanatory Style
Definition: The habitual way a person explains events, particularly whether they approach experiences with optimism or pessimism.
Types:
Optimistic Explanatory Style: Attributing positive events to internal, stable, and global causes.
Pessimistic Explanatory Style: Attributing negative events to internal, stable, and global causes.
Foot-in-the-Door
Definition: A persuasive technique that involves getting a person to agree to a large request by first setting them up with a smaller request.
Example: Asking someone to sign a petition (small request) before asking them to donate money (large request).
Door-In-the-Face
Definition: A persuasive technique where one starts with an outrageous request that is expected to be refused before presenting a more reasonable request.
Example: Requesting a large sum of money for a charity and then asking for a smaller, more manageable amount.
Elaboration Likelihood Model
Definition: A theory that explains how people are persuaded through two main routes to persuasion: central route and peripheral route.
Central Route: Involves deeply processing the content of the message.
Peripheral Route: Involves superficial cues such as the attractiveness of the speaker or emotional appeal.
Central Route of Persuasion
Definition: A method of persuasion that involves thoughtful consideration of the arguments (ideas, content) of the message.
Characteristics: Generally leads to enduring attitude changes.
Peripheral Route of Persuasion
Definition: A method of persuasion where attitude change is influenced by superficial cues rather than the message itself.
Example: Being persuaded by a speaker’s charisma rather than the content of their speech.
Cognitive Dissonance
Definition: A psychological discomfort experienced when an individual holds two or more contradictory beliefs, values, or ideas, or is confronted with new information that conflicts with existing beliefs.
Implications: This often motivates individuals to change their attitudes or beliefs to reduce discomfort.
Asch’s Line Study
Overview: A series of experiments conducted by Solomon Asch to demonstrate the effects of conformity in groups.
Findings: Individuals will conform to a majority view even when it is clearly incorrect, illustrating the power of group influence on individual decision-making.
Normative Social Influence
Definition: A type of social influence that leads to conformity to the expectations of others to gain social approval or avoid social disapproval.
Example: Individuals may dress similarly to peers to fit in.
Informational Social Influence
Definition: A type of social influence that leads to conformity due to the belief that others are more informed or knowledgeable.
Example: Following a crowd during an emergency because you believe that others know better how to react.
Milgram’s Study
Overview: A famous psychological experiment conducted by Stanley Milgram in the early 1960s to study obedience to authority.
Findings: A significant proportion of individuals were willing to administer shocks to others when directed by an authority figure, demonstrating the power of authority on individual obedience.
Obedience
Definition: The act of following orders or directives from an authority figure.
Key Factors: Authority, perceived legitimacy, and closeness to the authority figure can influence levels of obedience.
Social Facilitation
Definition: The tendency for people to perform differently when in the presence of others compared to when alone.
Impact: Generally leads to improved performance on simple tasks or tasks the individual finds easy.
Social Inhibition
Definition: The tendency for individuals to perform worse on complex tasks or tasks where they feel less confident when in the presence of others.
Social Loafing
Definition: The phenomenon where individuals exert less effort when working in a group compared to when working alone.
Implications: Can lead to reduced group productivity and can be mitigated by establishing individual accountability.
Deindividuation
Definition: A psychological state characterized by a diminished sense of personal responsibility and self-awareness in group contexts, often leading to behaviors that are atypical of the individual.
Example: Individuals may engage in aggressive acts in a mob or group setting rather than as individuals.
Risky Shift
Definition: A tendency for group decisions to be riskier than the average decision made by individual group members.
Implications: Can impact decision-making in scenarios such as leadership or group discussions.
Group Polarization
Definition: The phenomenon where group discussion leads to more extreme positions compared to pre-discussion views.
Example: A group of like-minded individuals discussing a topic may reach a consensus that is more extreme than their initial individual opinions.
Groupthink
Definition: A psychological phenomenon where the desire for harmony or conformity in a group results in irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcomes.
Symptoms: Suppression of dissenting viewpoints, a belief in the group’s inherent morality, and self-censorship.
Implicit Attitudes
Definition: Attitudes that are not consciously held, but can influence behavior in ways individuals may not be aware of.
Assessment: Often measured using techniques like the Implicit Association Test (IAT).
Stereotype
Definition: An oversimplified and generalized belief about a particular group of people.
Implications: Can lead to misjudgments about individuals based on group characteristics rather than personal attributes.
Prejudice
Definition: A preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience; often directed toward a particular group.
Types: Can include racial, religious, gender, and socio-economic prejudices.
Discrimination
Definition: Unfavorable treatment of individuals based on their membership in a certain group, often resulting from prejudicial attitudes.
Manifestation: Can occur in various forms such as employment discrimination, unfair treatment in criminal justice, etc.
In-group Bias
Definition: The tendency to favor members of one’s own group over those of other groups.
Implications: Can lead to favoritism and discrimination against out-group members.
Out-Group Bias
Definition: The tendency to view members of other groups negatively or to generalize them based on stereotypes.
Other Race Effect/Outgroup Homogeneity Bias
Definition: The tendency to recognize individuals of one’s own race better than those of other races, leading to the perception that members of other races are more similar to each other compared to one’s own race.
Ethnocentrism
Definition: The belief that one’s own cultural or ethnic group is superior to others, often leading to prejudice and discrimination against other groups.
Just World Phenomenon
Definition: The cognitive bias that assumes that the world is inherently fair, leading individuals to believe that people get what they deserve.
Implications: Can result in victim-blaming behaviors.
Physical Attractiveness
Definition: A societal standard related to physical appearance which often influences social interactions.
Implications: Often leads to the assumption that more physically attractive individuals possess other desirable traits (the Halo Effect).
Proximity
Definition: The physical closeness between individuals which influences the likelihood of forming relationships.
Implications: People are more likely to form friendships with those who are geographically close.
Similarity
Definition: The idea that individuals are drawn to those who have similar characteristics or interests.
Implications: Similarity can foster deeper connections and understanding in relationships.
Mere Exposure Effect
Definition: The psychological phenomenon where people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them.
Halo Effect
Definition: A cognitive bias in which the perception of one positive trait influences the perception of other traits.
Example: Assuming that someone who is physically attractive also possesses favorable personality traits.
Altruism
Definition: The selfless concern for the well-being of others.
Implications: Altruistic behavior can lead to positive social interactions and community welfare.
Bystander Effect
Definition: The social psychological phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help a victim when there are other people present.
Factors: The diffusion of responsibility often leads to inaction in group settings.
Diffusion of Responsibility
Definition: The tendency for individuals to feel less responsible to act in a situation when others are present.
Example: In an emergency, individuals assume someone else will intervene, leading to inaction.
Reciprocity Norm
Definition: The social standard that suggests individuals should repay others for what they receive.
Implications: This norm fosters cooperative and reciprocal relationships among individuals.
Social Responsibility Norm
Definition: The societal expectation that individuals will help those in need.
Implications: Encourages altruistic behavior and assists in community health.
Self-fulfilling Prophecies
Definition: A belief or expectation that creates the possibility of the occurrence of the event or behavior that confirms the belief.
Example: Believing one will fail an exam may lead to anxiety that hampers performance, resulting in failure.
Social Trap
Definition: A situation in which individuals act to obtain short-term individual gains that leads to long-term negative consequences for the group.
Example: Overfishing can deplete fish populations, ultimately harming fishermen and the ecosystem.
Superordinate Goals
Definition: Goals that require the cooperation of multiple parties or groups to achieve.
Implications: Working towards superordinate goals can reduce intergroup conflict and promote collaboration.
Industrial-Organization Psychologists (I/O)
Definition: Psychologists who study human behavior in the workplace and apply psychological principles to organizations and the improvement of productivity.
Areas of focus: Employee motivation, job satisfaction, personnel selection, and workplace dynamics.
Individualistic Culture
Definition: A culture that values the independence and self-reliance of the individual, promoting personal achievement over group goals.
Characteristics: Individual rights, personal freedom, and competitive achievement are emphasized.
Collectivistic Culture
Definition: A culture that prioritizes group goals and the welfare of the community over individual desires.
Characteristics: Cooperation, social harmony, and collectivist values are central to societal functioning.