All Terms

empiricism: view that (a) knowledge comes from experience via the senses and (b) science flourishes through observation & experiment
experiment: a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variables) By random assignment of participants the experiment controls other relevant factors
functionalism: a school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.
structuralism: an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind.
psychology: the science and behavior and mental processes
nature-nurture issue: the longstanding controversy over the relative contribution that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits & behaviors
basic research: pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base 8. applied research scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
clinical psychology: a branch of psychological studies that assess and treats with psychological disorders
psychiatry: a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders, practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (e.g. drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy
hindsight bias: the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (aka. the I knew it all along phenomenon
critical thinking: thinking that does not blindly accept arguments & conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, and discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, & assesses conclusions
theory: an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes & predicts observations
hypothesis: a testable prediction often implied by a theory
operational definition: a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables.
replication: a repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding generalizes to other participants & circumstances
case study: an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
survey: a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them
population: all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study
random sample: a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has a an equal chance of inclusion
naturalistic observation: observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
correlation coefficient: a statistical measure of the extent to which 2 factors vary together and thus of how well either factor predicts the other
illusory correlation: the perception of a relationship when none exists
placebo: Latin for "I shall please" an inert substance or condition that may be administered instead of a presumed active agent, such as a drug, to see if it triggers the effects believed to characterize the active agent
double blind procedure: an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant(blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
placebo effect: any effect on behavior caused by a placebo
experimental condition: the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment that is to one version of the independent variable
control condition: the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
random assignment: assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
independent variable: the experimental factor that is manipulated the variable whose effect is being studied
dependent variable: the experimental factor in psychology, the behavior or mental process-- that is being measure the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
culture: the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
SQ3R: a study method incorporating 5 steps: Survey, Question, Read, Rehearse, Review
statistical significance: a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
regression toward the mean: the tendency for extreme of unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward the average
correlation coefficient: A statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other
normal curve: the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.
standard deviation: a measure of variability that describes an average distance of every score from the mean
range: the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
median: the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
mean: the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
mode: the most frequently occurring score in a distribution
Edward B. Titchener: student of Wundt; founded structuralism; sought to explain the unconscious
Sigmund Freud: psychoanalytic perspective; people are motivated by powerful, unconscious drives and conflicts; develops an institutional therapy
gestalt perspective: reaction to structuralism; asserts that psychological phenomenons must be viewed not as individual elements but as a coherent variable; “The whole is different than the sum of its parts”
Margaret Floy Washburn: first woman to receive a PhD in psychology; was Titchener’s student; has a successful career in psychology
William James: associated with functionalism; established “first” experimental laboratory
Charles Darwin: natural selection/ survival of the fittest; most favorable traits survive longer
Wilhelm Wundt: father of psychology; first research laboratory in psychology (1879); introspection, psychophysical measurements, and reaction time
John Stuart Mill: “science of psychology”; mind can be studied scientifically
Rene Descartes: said that the brain did the thinking; there are 2 types of ideas, innate ( you were born with it) and derived (you acquired it)
Mary Whiton Calkins: first woman president of the APA; William James unofficially administered her exams (did not get a PhD)
James Mill: the mind has no creative function: mind is a machine
John B. Watson: behaviorism; trained as a functionalist; published “Psychology as a Behavior” launching behaviorism; focuses on observable and measurable behavior
Christine Ladd Franklin: first woman psychologist (technically); studies in vision; no formal academic post; never accepted in the past
John Locke: the mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa); against innate ideas; empirical approach (knowledge gathered by careful observation)
dendrites: a neuron’s bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
axon: the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands
threshold: the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural response
reuptake: a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron
refractory period: a period of inactivity after the neuron is fired
neurotransmitters: chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap between neurons. when released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind the receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse
antagonist: a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response
neuron: a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
action potential: a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
synapse: the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. the tiny gap at this junction is called the “________ gap” or the “ cleft”
agonist: a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response
glial cells (glia): cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning and thinking
circadian rhythm: the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur in a 24-hour cycle
manifest content: according to Freud, the remembered storyline of a dream
latent content: according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream
autonomic nervous system (ans): the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart); the sympathetic division arouses and the parasympathetic division calms
somatic nervous system: the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles (also called the “skeletal nervous system”)
peripheral nervous system (pns): the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (cns) to the rest of the body
interneurons: neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between sensory inputs and motor outputs
motor (efferent) neurons: neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
central nervous system (cns): system made up of the brain and spinal cord
cerebellum: the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input; coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory
hypothalamus: a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward
limbic system: neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives
sensory (afferent) neurons: neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
association areas: areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in the primary motor or sensory functions; rather they are involved in higher mental functions, such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
ecstasy (mdma): a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen; produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short term health issues and long term harm to serotonin-producing neuron and to mood cognition
hallucinogens: psychedelic (“mind manifesting”) drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input
cerebral cortex: the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres, the body’s ultimate control and information processing center
dual processing: the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
nicotine: a stimulating and highly addictive psychoanalytic drug in tobacco
thc: the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations
suprachiasmatic nucleus (scn): a pair of cell cluster in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, it causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness
pet (positron emission tomography) scan: a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a task
mri (magnetic resonance imaging): a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue; they show brain anatomy
pituitary gland: the endocrine system’s most influential gland; under the influence of the hypothalamus,it regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands
ct (computed tomography) scan: a series of x ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure (also called a cat scan)
fmri (functional mri): a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive mri scans; it shows brain function as well as its structure
electroencephalogram (eeg): an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface; these waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp
methamphetamine: a powerfully addictive drug that stimulate the central nervous system, which sped up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine changes
dissociation: a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occurs simultaneously with other
rem sleep: rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur; also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for muscle twitches) but other body systems are active