Study Notes on Contemporary Policing and Law Enforcement History
Peaceful Protest and Ambush Shootings
On July 7, 2016, a protest against police shootings turned deadly in Dallas, Texas.
Micah Xavier Johnson ambushed police officers, resulting in the deaths of five officers and injuring seven others.
Johnson was killed by a bomb squad robot after negotiations failed.
This event represented the deadliest day for law enforcement in the U.S. since September 11, 2001.
Following the Dallas ambush, another attack occurred in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, where three officers were killed and three others were wounded.
Shooter: Gavin Long, who posted on social media advocating fighting back against police.
Quote: “Zero have been successful just over simple protesting… You gotta fight back.”
Additional attacks in 2016 included:
A lone shooter killed two officers in Des Moines, Iowa while they were in their vehicles.
Another ambush on a police officer writing a traffic ticket in San Antonio, Texas.
In 2019, an Arkansas officer was ambushed and killed outside his police station; a South Carolina deputy was also killed while serving an eviction order.
Police Fatalities and Trends
The number of police fatalities peaked in 1974 at around 280, but generally, fatalities have declined since then.
2016 was an exception with 174 officers killed in the line of duty, marking a 7% increase from the previous year.
Most concerning: A 56% increase in gun deaths and nearly one-in-three officers killed were victims of ambush-style attacks.
In 2019, the death of 128 officers indicated a significant decrease in police fatalities in the line of duty.
Firearms-related deaths continue to be the leading cause of on-duty deaths.
Overall, policing is relatively safe compared to other professions like construction or transportation where fatalities are higher.
Overview of Policing
This chapter serves as an introduction to the history of policing, governmental organizations involved in law enforcement, and the role of technology in police operations.
Historical Context of Policing
Tribal and Early Policing
Tribal times: Villagers appointed to protect from marauders.
Eventually, governmental responsibility took over as policing became a public function.
Today, private security and civilian volunteers perform functions akin to government police.
Tythings: During medieval England, a group of 10 families providing mutual aid.
Hue and Cry: A call for help against danger in medieval times.
Medieval Policing Structures
Hundred: A collective of 100 families tasked with maintaining order.
Shire Reeve: Chief law enforcement official in early England, precursor to today’s sheriff.
Sheriff: Chief law enforcement officer in a county.
Watch System: Organized men patrolling churches at night to prevent disturbances.
Constable: Peacekeepers organizing citizen protection efforts.
Justice of the Peace: In 1362, Officials overseeing judicial functions within a county to assist the shire reeve.
The Evolution of Police in the U.S.
The origins of U.S. police correspond to early english society and lacked regular police forces before the Norman Conquest.
The pledge system held neighbors responsible for policing minor disturbances.
This evolved into England creating structured policing systems controlled by the crown.
Thief Takers: Corrupt private police/street enforcers arising in cities during the rise of crime, hand guns and were not afraid to kill to get what they wanted.
1725 the most notourious thief taker jack wild.“had two fractures in his skull and his bald head was covered with silver plates. He had seventeen wounds in various parts of his body from swords, daggers, and gunshots, [and] … his throat had been cut in the course of his duties.”
After about 200 years private policing is seen as essiential.
Local police forces often work with private police, private security firms and more.
The Establishment of Professional Police
Henry Fielding appointed a city masgistrate in 1748 and his Bow Street Runners in London marked an early attempt to professionalize policing, leading to the creation of organized police forces.
Sir Robert Peel: Introduced the Metropolitan Police Act in 1829, creating the first organized police force in London known as Bobbies. Over 1,000 men, many of them were corrupt, unsucessful at fighting crime, and heavily influenced by the wealthy.
Peel outlined principles of effective policing focused on community cooperation.
by 1856 every county and borough in England had a police force of their own.
Modern Policing Developments
Law Enforcement in colonial america
the sheriff became the most important law enforcement agent.
Leatherheads- named after their leather hats, just like watchmen patrolled the streets, they were not very respected, they were rowdy young men. “While the city sleeps the watchmen do too.”
Western Territories: the individual was encouraged to capture felons for rewards in return.
Vigilantes: In the Old West, members of a vigilance committee or posse called upon to capture cattle thieves or other felons.
Boston created the first formal police department in the United States in 1838.
New york in 1844, given uniforms in 1853 and Philly in 1854.
Officers were commonly taunted by local toughs and responded with force and brutality.
The long-standing conflict between police and the public was born in the difficulty that untrained, unprofessional officers had in patrolling the streets of nineteenth-century U.S. cities and in breaking up and controlling labor disputes.
At this time the role of the police was to maintain order and labeled as incompetent and corrupt.
to reduce police corruption civic leaders in a number of jurisdictions created police administrative boards to lessen local officials’ control over the police.
The Boston police strike of 1919 heightened interest in police reform.
voted to become a union affiliated with the American Federation of Labor. The police officers went on strike on September 9, 1919. Rioting and looting broke out, resulting in Governor Calvin Coolidge’s mobilization of the state militia to take over the city.
Those striking officers were fired and replaced stopping the union revolution.
In 1893, the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP), a professional society, was formed.
Wickersham commissionFormally known as the National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement, a commission created in 1929 by President Herbert Hoover to study the U.S. criminal justice system, including the police.
1960s to Present
Post-Vietnam War, shifts in police-community dynamics highlighted tensions with minority groups.
Community policing emerged focusing on crime prevention and community education.
September 11, 2001: Restructuring of federal law enforcement in response to terrorism, emphasizing intelligence-gathering and interagency cooperation.
Significant focus on technology and evidence-based approaches in policing throughout the 21st century.
Federal Law Enforcement Agencies
Various types of law enforcement exist in the federal structure:
Federal Police Agencies
Department of Justice: Enforces federal laws, includes:
Civil Rights Division: Investigates civil rights violations.
Tax Division: Enforces federal tax laws.
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI): Investigative body handling federal law enforcement, with oversight of numerous criminal activities including terrorism, organized crime, and financial fraud.
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF): Enforces laws regarding firearms and explosives, focusing on reducing illegal sales and trafficking.
U.S. Marshals: Oldest federal law enforcement agency overseeing judicial security, fugitive apprehension, witness protection, and transportation of prisoners.
Department of Homeland Security: Established post-9/11 for border security, terrorism prevention, and disaster response.
Customs and Border Protection (CBP): Protects borders against threats while facilitating legitimate trade.
State Law Enforcement
State Police: Established for crime control in nonurban areas, originally responding to changes in societal needs due to mobility.
County Sheriffs: Elected sheriffs with law enforcement duties in counties, evolving from their early roles assisting royal judges.
Private Policing
Emerged as a supplement to local police, often preferred for loss prevention rather than crime enforcement.
G4S Security Solutions: One of the largest global private security firms.
Technology in Policing
Types of Technology
Distinction between hard technology (physical devices) and soft technology (software).
Biometrics and DNA profiling as modern tools for identification.
Surveillance technologies enabling police to enhance situational awareness and response.
Predictive policing leveraging data to forecast criminal activity which is increasingly integrated into modern policing framework.
Ethical Challenges and Public Perception
Current issues facing policing include legitimacy crises resulting from high-profile incidents and the differing levels of public support based on demographic factors.
Recent developments in policing necessitate continuous discussions surrounding ethical implications, particularly regarding technology use and data privacy.