AMSCO 8.5

The early 20th century saw nationalist groups and leaders challenging colonial rule via:
- Land reform
- Political negotiation, exemplified by India
- Armed struggle, as evident in Angola (See Topic 8.3)
Struggles for independence post-World War I fueled anti-colonial sentiments during World War II.
Empires became politically distasteful, with European powers struggling to maintain colonies.
Ideals of freedom stemming from World War II rhetoric accelerated the pace of decolonization.
This process coincided with the Cold War and the establishment of the United Nations.
Nguyen Cao Ky (1930–2011) saw the Vietnam conflict as part of a broader Cold War struggle.

The Indian self-rule movement began in the 19th century with the establishment of the Indian National Congress.
In 1920, Mohandas Gandhi emerged as a leader advocating for independence.
Unity between Hindu and Muslim groups was formed due to a shared aim to end British rule.
The tactics employed by the National Congress included:
- Mass civil disobedience
- Remaining a significant governmental force after independence.
The Muslim League, founded in 1906, pushed for a separate nation for Muslims in India.
Differences among Indian leaders regarding Gandhi's nonviolent approach emerged but were set aside until post-World War II.
After the war:
- Britain weakened, while Indian resistance strengthened.
- Increased protests arose when Britain reneged on promises for greater rights.
The Royal Indian Navy Revolt (1946) was pivotal in convincing Britain it could not maintain rule over India.
- Economic pressures from India and Britain's own sluggish postwar recovery prompted negotiations.

Concerns arose among Muslims about being dominated by Hindus in an independent India.
This distrust traced back centuries to the 8th-century Muslim invasions of Hindu kingdoms.
Muslims campaigned for an independent Muslim state, which led to the formation of Pakistan.
India and Pakistan achieved independence in 1947.

Britain negotiated independence for the Gold Coast, combining it with the former British Togoland to form Ghana, the first sub-Saharan African nation to gain independence in the 20th century (1957).
The first president, Kwame Nkrumah, took office in 1960.
Influenced by modern nation-state ideas, Nkrumah promoted a national narrative emphasizing:
- Historical glory
- National symbols (flag, anthem)
- Infrastructure projects (hydroelectric plants)
Critics accused Nkrumah of fostering corruption and debt.
In 1964, Nkrumah assumed dictatorial powers under a one-party system.
Nkrumah was an advocate for Pan-Africanism, defined in multiple contexts:
- 19th-century vision aimed at returning former slaves to Africa.
- 20th-century focus on cultural and ideological unity across Africa.
Nkrumah founded the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in 1963. In 1966, a military coup ousted his government, leading to a long authoritarian regime.

Algeria, a French colony, experienced intense violence before gaining independence, amidst social, political, and economic crises.
After World War II, nationalism surged, leading to the Algerian War for Independence (1954).
The National Liberation Front (FLN), advocating for independence, employed guerrilla warfare against French forces.
A significant number of Algerians died with numerous instances of military torture reported.
In France, divisions intensified, leading the French Communist Party to support Algerian independence.
In 1958, Charles de Gaulle's government planned steps for independence, culminating in a referendum.
By 1962, Algeria gained independence, but violence broke out post-independence, resulting in thousands of pro-French Algerian refugees.
The FLN maintained an authoritarian and socialist government following independence, leading to collective agriculture and industrial modernization efforts.

Beginning in 1991, the Civil War arose from political repression as the Islamic Salvation Front aimed for power.
The FLN remained in control, with President Abdelaziz Bouteflika elected in 1999.
The military lifted a long-standing state of emergency in 2011, associated with broader protests across the region.

Both countries faced challenges under military rule, particularly a struggle between multiparty and single-party systems.
Ghana established a constitution in 1992 supporting democratic governance.
Algeria faced escalating religious tension, with significant violence and repression of Islamic movements following an assassination of a president in 1992.

As Britain negotiated with its colonies, France did similarly with its West African territories, including Senegal and the Ivory Coast.
France had utilized indirect rule to maintain control, relying on local leaders.
By the mid-1950s, various political movements emerged, leading to negotiations for independence by 1959.

After World War II, France attempted to reestablish control in Vietnam, which led to a bloody struggle against communist forces led by Ho Chi Minh.
The conflict escalated, eventually resulting in a peace treaty in 1954 that divided Vietnam into North and South, with elections planned for 1956 that were never conducted due to U.S. intervention.
War escalated with U.S. support for South Vietnam against the guerrilla Viet Cong resistance.
The Vietnam War saw between 1-2 million deaths, including 58,000 Americans.
A shift towards market-based reforms began in Vietnam during the 1980s, leading to restored diplomatic relations with the U.S.

Egypt became nominally independent in 1922 but retained significant British influence, particularly around the Suez Canal.
Gamal Abdel Nasser rose to power in 1952, promoting Pan-Arabism and implementing socialist reforms.
The Suez Crisis arose in 1956 when Nasser nationalized the canal, leading to military confrontation with Israel, Britain, and France.
The U.S. and USSR intervention pivoted the outcome, resulting in the canal being an international waterway under Egyptian sovereignty.

Nigeria gained independence from Britain in 1960, but ethnic tensions led to the Biafran Civil War starting in 1967 due to the Igbo attempt to secede.
The conflict ended in 1970 with the dissolution of Biafra and continued military rule until 1999.
Efforts to combat tribalism included establishing a federation of states across ethnic lines, with ongoing strife and socioeconomic issues persisting in the Niger Delta.

Quebec has deep French cultural roots, historically aligned with France until England's control in the late 1700s.
The Quiet Revolution (1960s) catalyzed political and economic reforms pushing for independence, resulting in cultural nationalism.
The 1995 independence referendum nearly passed, demonstrating ongoing tensions in maintaining national unity.

GOVERNMENT: Leaders
- Kwame Nkrumah
- Charles de Gaulle
- Ho Chi Minh
- Gamal Abdel Nasser
GOVERNMENT: Structures
- One-party state
GOVERNMENT: Wars, Conflicts, and Compromises
- Algerian War for Independence
- Algerian Civil War
- Suez Crisis
- Biafran Civil War
- Quiet Revolution
SOCIETY: Pro-Independence Organizations
- Muslim League
- Organization of African Unity (OAU)
SOCIETY: Military-Political Organizations
- Viet Cong