Exam Pysc
Markers of Adulthood
Definition: Social and psychological indicators that someone has transitioned into adulthood.
Details:
Not based strictly on age (cultural variation)
Modern adulthood = delayed compared to past generations
Core markers:
Responsibility (own actions, commitments)
Independent decision-making
Financial independence
In emerging adulthood, many individuals do not fully meet these yet
👉 Exam insight: Shows shift from traditional → modern adulthood (ties to culture + SES)
Physical Activity in Adulthood
Definition: Exercise behaviors that maintain physical and cognitive health.
Details:
Recommended: 150 minutes moderate OR 75 minutes vigorous/week
Includes aerobic + strength training
Consequences of regular activity:
↓ cardiovascular disease
↓ obesity, diabetes
↑ brain plasticity (especially hippocampus)
↑ mood (reduces depression/anxiety)
Consequences of inactivity:
↑ allostatic load
Faster aging (secondary aging)
👉 Connection: Physical activity = major protector against both physical AND cognitive decline
Physical Health & Senescence Across Adulthood
Definition: Gradual biological aging and its effects on the body.
Early Adulthood
Peak strength, fertility, immune function
Small declines begin (reaction time, stamina)
Middle Adulthood
Noticeable changes:
↓ metabolism → weight gain
↓ vision (presbyopia)
↓ muscle mass
Chronic disease risk increases
Late Adulthood
Major declines:
Frailty
Reduced organ efficiency
Increased illness (heart disease, dementia)
👉 Key idea: Aging is gradual, but rate varies by lifestyle (secondary aging)
Protectors of Physical & Cognitive Health
Definition: Factors that slow decline and improve longevity.
Major protectors:
Exercise → maintains brain + body
Healthy diet → reduces inflammation
Social engagement → protects cognition
Mental stimulation (reading, learning)
Low chronic stress
👉 Big concept: These factors increase organ reserve and reduce allostatic load
Homeostasis, Allostatic Load, Organ Reserve
Homeostasis
Body maintains stable conditions (temp, pH, etc.)
Allostatic Load
“Cost” of repeated stress responses
Chronic stress → hormone imbalance → damage
Organ Reserve
Extra functional capacity (e.g., lungs, heart)
👉 Key relationship:
High stress → ↑ allostatic load → ↓ organ reserve → faster aging
Primary vs Secondary Aging
Primary Aging
Biological, universal
Examples:
Wrinkles
Hair graying
Secondary Aging
Caused by environment/lifestyle
Examples:
Lung damage (smoking)
Obesity-related disease
👉 Exam tip: Secondary aging is preventable, primary is not
Climacteric (Men vs Women)
Menopause
Sudden drop in estrogen
Ends fertility
Symptoms: hot flashes, mood changes
Andropause
Gradual testosterone decline
Less dramatic
Effects: reduced muscle, libido
👉 Comparison: Female = sudden, male = gradual
Fowler’s Stages of Faith
Definition: Development of religious/spiritual thinking.
Progression:
Intuitive-projective (child) – imagination-based
Mythic-literal – concrete beliefs
Synthetic-conventional – influenced by others
Individuative-reflective – personal beliefs
Conjunctive faith – accepts contradictions
Universalizing faith – rare, selfless perspective
👉 Connection: Links to cognitive development (postformal thought)
Postformal Thought
Definition: Advanced adult thinking beyond Piaget.
Adaptive Logic
Real-world problem solving
Practical vs ideal solutions
Relativistic Thinking
Recognizes multiple perspectives
Truth depends on context
Dialectical Thought
Combines opposites into synthesis
👉 Example: Understanding both sides of an argument and creating a balanced solution
Brain Changes in Adulthood
↓ volume in prefrontal cortex (decision-making)
↓ hippocampus (memory)
↓ processing speed
BUT: brain retains plasticity
👉 Important: Decline ≠ loss of all ability (compensation strategies develop)
Cross-Sectional vs Longitudinal Intelligence Studies
Cross-Sectional
Younger vs older groups at one time
Finds decline earlier
Problem: cohort effects
Longitudinal
Same individuals over time
Shows later decline
Problem: practice effects
👉 Exam insight: Results differ based on method
Seattle Longitudinal Study
Longitudinal design
Found:
Intelligence improves into middle adulthood
Decline occurs later than expected
Demonstrates plasticity
Fluid vs Crystallized Intelligence
Fluid: reasoning, problem-solving → declines
Crystallized: knowledge, vocabulary → increases
👉 Important: Older adults may compensate using crystallized intelligence
Emotion Regulation
Improves with age
Older adults:
Avoid conflict
Focus on meaningful relationships
👉 Leads to positivity effect
Big Five Personality Traits
Openness
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Trends:
Conscientiousness ↑
Neuroticism ↓
Stability & Change in Personality
Personality is relatively stable
Small changes toward maturity
👉 Continuity + change theme
Set-Point Theory of Happiness
People return to baseline happiness
Events (good or bad) have temporary effects
Erikson’s Adult Stages
Identity vs Role Confusion
Who am I?
Intimacy vs Isolation
Forming close relationships
Generativity vs Stagnation
Contributing to next generation
Integrity vs Despair
Reflecting on life
👉 Connection: Each stage builds on previous
Emerging Adulthood (Career + Life)
Exploration phase
Instability
Delayed marriage/career
Challenges:
Job uncertainty
Financial dependence
Parental Support
Financial + emotional support continues
Helps success BUT may delay independence
Mental Health in Emerging Adulthood
Highest rates of:
Anxiety
Depression
Caused by stress, identity exploration
Diathesis-Stress Model
Disorder = predisposition + stress trigger
👉 Example:
Genetic risk + life stress → depression
❤ LOVE & RELATIONSHIPS
Passionate Love
Intense, emotional, short-term
Companionate Love
Stable, long-term
Sternberg’s Theory
Intimacy + Passion + Commitment
👉 Types:
Romantic (I + P)
Companionate (I + C)
Consummate (all 3)
Partner Selection
Similarity (values, background)
Proximity
Physical attraction
Relationship Success
Communication
Emotional support
Conflict resolution
Marriage Trends
Marrying later
More cohabitation
Attachment & Canalization
Early attachment influences adult relationships
Not fixed, but strong tendency
Caregiving
Informal (family)
Formal (nursing, healthcare)
Demographic Shift
Aging population increasing
More elderly than children
Ageism
Stereotypes against older adults
Can impact health and opportunities
Culture & Aging
Some cultures value elders
Others prioritize youth
Theories of Aging
Programmed (genetics)
Wear & tear (damage over time)
Error (cellular mistakes)
Memory & Aging
Working memory declines
Recall harder than recognition
Neurocognitive Disorders
Severe decline interfering with life
Alzheimer’s Disease
Most common NCD
Symptoms:
Memory loss
Confusion
Risk increases with age
Individual Differences in Aging
Lifestyle, SES, culture matter
Activity vs Disengagement
Activity = stay engaged → better outcomes
Disengagement = withdrawal
Continuity Theory
Maintain same identity over time
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
Focus on meaningful relationships
Positivity Effect
Prefer positive memories
ADLs vs IADLs
ADLs = basic survival tasks
IADLs = complex independence tasks
Death & Grief
Attitudes vary
Grief is individual and cultural
No fixed stages for everyone
🌍 CUMULATIVE CONCEPTS (DETAILED)
4 Major Themes
Universal vs unique
Continuity vs change (plasticity)
Nature + nurture interaction
Context + culture
WEIRD Populations
Not globally representative
Bias in research
Weathering
Chronic stress → faster aging
Seen in marginalized groups
SES
Impacts health, education, lifespan
Ableism
Bias against disability
Scientific Method
Question → Hypothesis → Test → Analyze → Conclusion → Replication
Correlation vs Causation
Correlation = relationship
Causation = cause-effect
Brain Development
Myelination
Pruning
Neurogenesis
Synaptogenesis
Theories of Development
Psychodynamic
Behaviorism
Cognitive
Sociocultural
Evolutionary
👉 Eclectic perspective: combine theories