Comprehensive

Drive Reduction Theory (C. Hull)

  • Core Premise: S→O→RS \rightarrow O \rightarrow R chain; response depends on characteristics of both stimulus (S) and organism (O).
  • Reinforcement = drive reduction (need satisfaction) rather than mere reward frequency.
  • Key Intervening Variables
    • Initial drive level
    • Incentives (magnitude, quality)
    • Inhibition (fatigue, reactive inhibition)
    • Habit strength (from prior training)
  • Major Postulates (mathematised)
    1. Hierarchy of needs ⇒ aroused when stimulation + drive present.
    2. Habit strength HH increases with pairings to primary/secondary reinforcement.
    3. Generalisation strength ∝ stimulus similarity (discrimination threshold).
    4. Stimuli marking response cessation become conditioned inhibitors.
    5. Latency ∝ (E!.!Rp−threshold)−1\bigl(E!.!R_p − \text{threshold}\bigr)^{-1} (effective reaction potential vs. threshold).
  • Habit-strength hierarchy: for any S, organism possesses probability-ordered list of alternative Rs.
  • Scope: Intended general theory; mostly animal data; one human verbal study (Hull et al., 1940); extended by Miller & Dollard (1941).
  • Example (Miller & Dollard): 6-yr-old girl finds candy under book; search time drops 210→86→2210 \rightarrow 86 \rightarrow 2 seconds across trials ⇒ habit acquisition via drive reduction.
  • Principles for educators
    1. Student must want (drive).
    2. Student must notice S & R.
    3. Student must act (make R).
    4. Reinforcement must satisfy learner’s need.

Connectionism (E. Thorndike)

  • Original S-R framework: learning = forming stimulus–response connections (habits).
  • Primary Laws
    1. Law of Effect: S-R followed by satisfying state ⇒ strengthened; annoying ⇒ weakened.
    2. Law of Readiness: series of Rs can be chained toward a goal; blocking ⇒ annoyance.
    3. Law of Exercise: practice ⇒ stronger; disuse ⇒ weaker.
  • Corollaries
    • Punishment decreases connection strength.
    • Transfer depends on identical elements between situations (specific, not general).
    • “Belongingness”: perceived fit eases connection.
    • “Polarity”: connections easier in original direction.
    • “Spread of Effect”: reward spreads to adjacent connections.
  • Scope: Universal learning theory; heavy application to schooling (reading, spelling, math, adult ed.).
  • Classic Example: Cat escaping puzzle-box by lever pressing.
  • Educational Principles
    1. Practice + reward essential.
    2. Chaining possible when Rs ‘belong’ together.
    3. Prior similar situations aid transfer.
    4. Intelligence = total number of connections.

Operant Conditioning (B. F. Skinner)

  • Learning = change in emitted behaviour shaped by consequences.
  • Reinforcer: any consequence that increases R frequency.
    • Positive (add stimulus)
    • Negative (remove aversive stimulus) – distinct from punishment.
  • Schedules of Reinforcement: ratio vs. interval; continuous vs. intermittent (latter more resistant).
  • Skinner linked behavioural principles to cognitive phenomena (drive = deprivation schedule, etc.).
  • Applications: behaviour modification, classroom management, programmed instruction.
  • Programmed Instruction Guidelines (Markle; Skinner)
    1. Stimulus–response frames in small steps.
    2. Learner responds every frame; immediate feedback.
    3. Sequence difficulty so responses are ~always correct (shaping).
    4. Pair success with secondary reinforcers (praise, grades).
  • Core Principles for teachers
    1. Positively reinforced behaviour recurs; intermittent ≈ best.
    2. Info in small chunks → reinforce often.
    3. Reinforcement generalises to similar stimuli.

Carl Rogers – Humanistic Personality Theory

  • Fundamental belief: Humans are innately trust-worthy & rational; central motive = actualising tendency.
  • Key Constructs
    • Self: awareness of being + functioning; built via interaction.
    • Self-Actualising Tendency: actualisation of experiences symbolised in self; ‘master motive’ once basic needs met.
  • Person-centred therapy → emphasis on ethics, agency, freedom; psychology = ‘human science’.

Intelligence & IQ

Basics & Formulae

  • Original ratio formula IQ=MACA×100IQ = \frac{MA}{CA} \times 100.
  • Deviation IQ (modern): mean =100=100, standard deviation (SD) ≈ 1515; assumes normal distribution.
  • Rule of thumb: ≈66%\approx 66\% within ±1 SD\pm1\,SD, ≈95%\approx 95\% within ±2 SD\pm2\,SD.
  • High-IQ societies: Mensa requires ≥98th\ge 98^{\text{th}} percentile.

Historic Classifications

  • Terman (SD 16): 140+140+ Genius; 120!–!140120!–!140 Very Superior; 90!–!11090!–!110 Average; <70 Feeble-mindedness.
  • Wechsler (PE-based): Very Superior ≥128\ge128 (≈2.2%2.2\%); Average 91!–!11091!–!110 (50%).
  • Outdated terms: Moron 50!–!6950!–!69, Imbecile 20!–!4920!–!49, Idiot <20.
  • DSM now couples IQ with adaptive functioning.

Multiple Intelligences (Gardner)

  • 9 accepted intelligences: Linguistic, Logical-Mathematical, Spatial, Musical, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalistic, Existential.
  • Criteria: neurological isolation, evolutionary history, core operations, symbol coding, developmental path, idiot-savants, experimental & psychometric support.
  • Educational Implication: Broaden pedagogy beyond linguistic/logical; use varied methodologies.
  • Critiques: limited empirical support; seen as rhetoric by many psychologists.

Behaviourism – General Notes

  • Philosophy: all actions, thoughts & feelings = behaviours describable scientifically.
  • Reject mentalistic causes; emphasise observable correlates.
  • Key Branches
    • Methodological (Watson): no internal states.
    • Radical (Skinner): includes private events but not as causes.
    • Teleological, Theoretical, Biological, Psychological behaviourism, etc.
  • Behaviourism eclipsed mid-20C by cognitive revolution but remains vital in CBT & behaviour analysis.

Dewey – Progressive & Experiential Education

  • Learning = active, education is life itself.
  • School ↔ community; tasks should be real, guided, socially relevant.
  • Critiqued authoritarian & unfettered ‘free’ education; proposed theory of experience: continuity (every experience influences future) & interaction (past + present situation ⇒ current experience).
  • Goals: democratic citizenship; curricula must respect individual differences.
  • Influenced outdoor, adult, service & experiential education.

Experiential Learning & Smith/Neill Notes

  • Experiential learning = learning through direct participation.
    1. Self-directed (informal).
    2. Structured experiential education (programmes needing prep + reflection).
  • Principles for experiential teachers: active involvement, valuing students’ experience, varied formats, inspiring facilitation.

Empiricism

  • Knowledge derives from experience (a posterioria\ posteriori) vs. rationalism (a prioria\ priori).
  • Historical Empiricists: Aristotle, Bacon, Locke (tabula rasa), Berkeley (idealism), Hume (impressions/ideas; scepticism on causality), J. S. Mill (extreme inductivism).
  • American strands: Pragmatism (Peirce, James, Dewey), Quine (web of belief).
  • Emphasises induction, observation, fallibilism.

Piaget – Cognitive Development

  • Children ≠ less intelligent; they think differently.
  • Key Processes: schema, assimilation, accommodation, equilibration.
  • Stages & Approx. Ages
    1. Sensorimotor (0-2): object permanence; 6 substages →\to early representational thought.
    2. Pre-operational (2-7): symbolic play; egocentrism; lack conservation.
    3. Concrete Operational (7-11): logical thought on concrete events; conservation mastered; class inclusion.
    4. Formal Operational (11+): abstract, hypothetical reasoning.
  • Critiques: ages too rigid; some never reach formal; underestimates early abilities.

Vygotsky – Social Development Theory

  • Learning precedes development; cognition = social → individual (inter- then intra-psychological).
  • Major Themes
    1. Social Interaction crucial.
    2. More Knowledgeable Other (MKO): teacher, peer, computer.
    3. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): gap between independent & assisted performance; scaffolding adjusts support.
  • Cultural Mediation: tools (speech, writing) internalised into higher mental functions.
  • Play: pivot objects sever meaning from object; rule-based → self-regulation.

Kohlberg – Moral Development

  • Method: moral dilemmas (e.g., Heinz) analysed for reasoning, not answers.
  • Levels & Stages
    1. Pre-conventional
    • 11 Obedience/Punishment
    • 22 Individualism/Exchange (\“what’s in it for me?\”)
    1. Conventional
    • 33 Interpersonal Concordance (good boy/girl)
    • 44 Law-and-Order
    1. Post-conventional
    • 55 Social Contract
    • 66 Universal Ethical Principles (rare; abstract justice)
  • Critiques: emphasises justice over care; Western bias; reasoning ≠ behaviour.

Bloom’s Taxonomy (Cognitive Domain)

  • Revised hierarchy (Anderson & Krathwohl)
    1. Remember (Knowledge)
    2. Understand (Comprehension)
    3. Apply
    4. Analyze
    5. Evaluate
    6. Create (Synthesis)
  • Affective Domain Levels: Receiving, Responding, Valuing, Organising, Characterising.
  • Psychomotor (Simpson): Perception → Set → Guided R → Mechanism → Complex R → Adaptation → Origination.

Writing Process

  • Stages: Prewriting → Drafting → Revising → Editing → Publishing (recursive, not linear).
  • Prewriting: motivation, audience, topic selection, research, brainstorming, outlining (mind-mapping, clustering), narrowing scope.
  • Revision: examine thesis, structure, coherence; focus on ideas vs. surface.
  • Editing: correct spelling, grammar, POV, mechanics, diction.
  • Oral reading techniques: Readers’ theater, think-pair-share, popcorn reading, literature circles, guided reading.

Language Education & Teaching Methods

Major Approaches

  • Grammar-Translation: memorise vocab & rules; L1 used; good for classics.
  • Direct/Natural Method: target language only; oral emphasis; visual aids.
  • Audio-Lingual: stimulus-response drills; habit formation; based on behaviourism, structural linguistics.
  • Silent Way (Gattegno): teacher silence; discovery; Cuisenaire rods.
  • Suggestopedia (Lozanov): music, relaxation, positive suggestion.
  • Total Physical Response (Asher): comprehension driven; commands with actions.
  • TPR-Storytelling (Ray): narrative-based comprehensible input.
  • Communicative Language Teaching (CLT): interaction & functional language; TBLL, Dogme.
  • Language Immersion: early/late, partial/total, dual-language – content taught through L2.
  • Proprioceptive (feedback training): simultaneous cognitive + motor training.
  • Proprietary: Pimsleur (spaced audio), Michel Thomas (teacher-led dialogues).

Classroom Interaction

  • Dyadic patterns: collaborative (optimal), expert/novice, dominant/dominant, dominant/passive.
  • Language output aids ‘noticing’ & hypothesis testing within ZPD.

Teaching Methods (General)

  • Key modes: Questioning, Explaining (lecture), Demonstrating, Collaborating, Learning by Teaching (LdL).
  • Effective practice considers auditory, visual, kinesthetic styles; scaffolding; graphic organisers.
  • Humanistic Education (Maslow, Rogers): learner choice, whole-person, self-evaluation, teacher as facilitator.

Curriculum

  • Prescriptive set of courses/content; aligned with objectives & assessments.
  • Spiral curriculum revisits topics at increasing complexity.
  • National vs. local control (e.g., US states; UK National Curriculum).

Research Processes & Methods

  • Basic Structure: Observe → Hypothesise → Define → Collect → Analyse → Revise → Conclude.
  • Types: Exploratory, Constructive, Empirical; Primary vs. Secondary.
  • Scientific vs. Artistic vs. Historical research; qualitative vs. quantitative.
  • Publishing: peer review; open access; STM fields.