Comprehensive Study Guide to Chinese History, Literature, and Theater

Historical and Philosophical Foundations of Chinese Literature

  • Chinese literature directly reflects the political, social, and cultural history of China spanning thousands of years.
  • The literary tradition is deeply influenced by native philosophies as well as religions originating both inside and outside China's borders.
  • Central thematic motivations include:
    • Philosophical inquiries into the fundamental meaning of human existence.
    • Ethical frameworks detailing how individuals should behave within society.
    • Spiritual pursuit of living in harmony with the natural cosmic order.

Historical Development across Imperial Dynasties

  • Shang Dynasty (1600 B.C.):
    • Religious life was centered around the belief that nature was inhabited by numerous powerful gods and spirits.
    • Key technological and intellectual advancements included:
    • Mastery of bronze working.
    • Development of a decimal system.
    • Creation of a 12-month calendar system.
    • Invention of an early writing system comprising approximately 3,000 distinct characters.

Shang Dynasty Bronze Ritual Vessels

Evolution of Chinese Characters Script

  • Chou Dynasty (1100 B.C. – 221 B.C.):

    • Stood as the longest-lasting dynasty in Chinese history.
    • Marred by prolonged political disunity, conflict, and societal upheaval throughout most of its duration.
    • Known as the Hundred Schools period due to the proliferation of competing intellectual traditions, philosophers, and teachers.
    • Two main philosophical movements dominated:
    • Taoism (Lao Tzu): Emphasized personal freedom, simplicity, non-action, and the mystical contemplation of nature.
    • Confucianism (Confucius / Kong Qiu): Emphasized a strict code of social conduct, filial piety, moral discipline, societal harmony, and continuous pursuit of knowledge.
    • The Book of Songs (Shih Ching):
    • Compiled in the 6th century B.C., serving as the oldest known collection of Chinese poetry and the benchmark for moral insight and poetic elegance.
    • Categorized into court songs (entertainment for nobility), story songs (narrating Chou legends), temple hymns (accompanied by ritual dances), and popular folk songs/ballads.
    • Original musical melodies associated with these verses have been lost to time.
    • Exemplary folk poem: O Oriole, Yellow Bird       > "O oriole, yellow bird,
            > Do not settle on the corn,
            > Do not peck at my millet.
            > The people of this land
            > Are not minded to nurture me.
            > I must go back, go home
            > To my own land and kin."
    • Parables of the Ancient Philosophers:
    • Literary works highlighting Taoist philosophy and Chinese humanism.
    • Focused on the relativity of human judgment, the importance of adaptability/flexibility, and the inherent drawbacks of material progress.
    • Example narrative: The Missing Axe by Lieh Tzu       > A man who misplaced his axe suspected his neighbor's son. He observed the boy walking like a thief, looking like a thief, and speaking like a thief. Later, after digging in the valley, the man recovered his lost axe. Upon seeing the neighbor's son again, the boy walked, looked, and spoke no differently than any normal child.

  • Ch'in Dynasty (221 B.C. – 207 B.C.):

    • Characterized by the unification of China under a powerful centralized imperial state.
    • Major infrastructure projects were executed, including an imperial road network across all territories.
    • Border defense walls along the northern frontiers were joined into a continuous fortification structure: the Great Wall of China.

  • Han Dynasty (207 B.C. – A.D. 220):

    • Considered one of the most prosperous and culturally vibrant eras of Chinese civilization.
    • Marked by the historical arrival and integration of Buddhism from India (originating with Siddhartha Gautama).

  • T'ang Dynasty (A.D. 618 – 960):

    • Recognized as the Golden Age of Chinese Civilization, during which fine arts and lyrical literature attained unprecedented perfection.
    • Major technological innovations:
    • Formulation of gunpowder.
    • Development of woodblock printing.
    • Poetic expression reached its peak; writers drew inspiration from natural phenomena such as spring blossoms, autumn foliage, and lunar phases.
    • Primary Poetry Examples:
    • Conversation in the Mountains by Li Po:       > "If you were to ask me why I dwell among green mountains,
            > I should laugh silently; my soul is serene.
            > The peach blossom follows the moving water;
            > There is another heaven and earth beyond the world of men."
    • A Meeting by Tu Fu:       > "We were often separated
            > Like the Dipper and the morning star
            > What night is tonight?
            > We are together in the candlelight.
            > How long does youth last?
            > Now we are all gray-haired.
            > Half of our friends are dead,
            > And both of us were surprised when we met."

  • Sung Dynasty (A.D. 960 – 1279):

    • Highlighted by cultural refinement, scholarly focus, and artistic delicacy.
    • Literary creation transitioned away from professional poets toward educated amateur scholars.
    • Saw the substantial growth and systemization of Neo-Confucianism.

  • Later Dynasties (A.D. 1260 – 1912):

    • Yuan Dynasty (1260 – 1368):
    • Northern China was invaded during the late 12th and early 13th centuries by Mongol forces led by Genghis Khan.
    • Kublai Khan completed the conquest of all China, establishing the Yuan dynasty as the first foreign ruling dynasty.
    • Venetian traveler Marco Polo visited China during Kublai Khan's reign.
    • Ming Dynasty (1368 – 1644):
    • Indigenous Han Chinese rule was restored following the expulsion of Mongol forces.
    • Popular theater and vernacular drama flourished, leading to a relative decline in classical scholarly language.
    • Ch'ing Dynasty (1644 – 1912):
    • Established by Manchu rulers as China's second foreign imperial dynasty.
    • Marked by territorial expansion, economic stability, and rapid population growth, which created administrative challenges for the central state.

Mongol Horse Archers in Battle

Territorial Map of the Yuan Dynasty under Kublai Khan

Structure of Traditional Chinese Government and Imperial Examinations

  • Imperial governance endured continuously for over 2,000 years, operating as a strict pyramid hierarchy.
  • The Emperor: Positioned at the apex, known as the Son of Heaven, governing as a hereditary monarch.
  • Bureaucracy: Administered by state officials directly beneath the emperor.
  • Service in the imperial civil administration was considered the highest social honor.
  • Official selection was conducted via rigid Civil Service Examinations:
    • Exams tested comprehensive knowledge of classical philosophy, historical texts, and poetic masterworks.
    • Required candidates to compose original poetry according to strict prosodic rules.
    • As a result, government officials were deeply educated scholars, and many renowned Chinese poets served as high-ranking state administrators.

Major Classical Chinese Poetic Forms and Literary Genres

  • Poetry occupied a higher artistic and intellectual status in traditional Chinese culture than prose.

  • Key characteristics of Chinese poetry:

    • Lucidity of thought.
    • Structural and linguistic brevity.
    • Emotional and thematic subtlety.
    • Reliance on understatement and suggestiveness.
    • Synthetic appeal uniting intellect, emotion, and visual calligraphy.

  • Shih:

    • Served as the dominant poetic genre from the 2nd century through the 12th century.
    • Structural rules:
    • Even number of total lines.
    • Uniform line length throughout the poem (typically 5 or 7 characters/words per line).
    • End-rhyme applied consistently across all even-numbered lines.
    • Frequent implementation of parallel verse structures (couplets sharing semantic or syntactic balance).

  • Sao:

    • Emerged from Li Sao ("Encountering Sorrow"), an autobiographical poem of protest written by China's first prominent poet, Chu Yuan (332–295 B.C.).
    • Structure:
    • Part I: Autobiographical narrative displaying Confucian ethical principles.
    • Part II: Imaginative fantasy detailing a spiritual journey undertaken by the narrator.
    • Allowed poets to describe real and mythical Chinese flora and fauna, expressing sorrow over unrecognized virtue.

  • Fu:

    • Hybrid form combining expository prose with descriptive poetry.
    • Focuses on a single sentiment or reflective theme, using language ranging from direct simplicity to elaborate rhetoric.
    • Historical example: Mei Sheng's (c. 141 BC) Seven Stimuli, describing a powerful tidal bore.

  • Lu-shih (Regulation Poetry):

    • Formalized during the T'ang Dynasty and sustained through modern times.
    • Structure:
    • 8-line stanza (octave) featuring 5-character or 7-character lines.
    • Strict end-rhyme scheme across even lines.
    • Presence of a caesura (pause) within every line (frequently following the third word).
    • Division of content:
      • First 4 lines (Ching): Describes the external scene or physical setting.
      • Last 4 lines (Ch'ing): Expresses the internal emotion.
    • The fusion of setting and emotion highlights personal solitude balanced by perseverance.

Lu-shih Poetic Structure Table

  • Chueh-chu (Truncated Poetry):

    • A condensed adaptation of Lu-shih, gaining popularity during the T'ang Dynasty.
    • Consists of only 4 lines (totaling 20 or 28 characters/syllables) that capture concise images of nature.

  • Tz'u:

    • Most strongly associated with the Sung Dynasty.
    • Characterized by flexible line lengths and variable character counts per verse.
    • Written directly to fit the rhythmic patterns of existing popular song melodies.
    • Famous example: Su Shi's poem set to the tune Jiang Cheng Zi (Ten Years Living and Death).

Artistic Conventions and Structure of Classical Chinese Theater and Opera

  • Ritual and Religious Origins:

    • Traced back to early spiritual dances and chants of the Chi (male wizards) and Wu (female witches).
    • Originally performed to appease spirits, perform exorcisms, invoke rainfall, and secure agricultural harvests.

  • The Four Primary Role Types (Peking Opera):

    1. Sheng: Leading male character role. Portrays scholars, statesmen, generals, and patriotic warriors. Subdivided into three distinct subtypes.
    2. Dan (Tau): Covers all female roles. Following historical bans on female stage actors (due to courtesan associations), these roles were traditionally performed by male female-impersonators across six primary character variations.
    3. Ching: Painted-face role. Portrays generals, outlaws, crafty ministers, incorruptible judges, loyal statesmen, or divine entities. Requires broad face makeup patterns symbolizing internal character traits.
    4. Chou (Chau): The clown or comedic role. Identified by a white paint patch surrounding the nose and eyes. Uses vernacular language, combining mimicry, physical comedy, and acrobatics.

The Four Primary Role Types of Chinese Opera

  • Dramatic Structure and Ethics:

    • Rejects Classical Western (Aristotelian) unities of time, place, and action; scenes span multiple locations, plots cover decades, and include complex subplots.
    • Designed to deliver Confucian moral education, upholding virtue, punishing vice, and honoring filial piety and loyalty.
    • Utilizes two speech types:
    • Dialogue: Delivered in prose to advance dramatic action.
    • Monologue: Spoken by actors at their initial entry to state their identity and summarize relevant plot context.
    • Full performances last between six to seven hours, typically structured in four main acts with a prologue and epilogue.
    • Combines verse recitation, solo singing, acrobatics, martial arts, dance, and live orchestral music.

  • Stagecraft and Symbolism:

    • Hsieh tzu (The Wedge): A poetic verse interlude positioned at the beginning or between acts.
    • Minimalist, bare stage setup relying on symbolic prop arrangements:
    • A basic wooden table paired with two chairs can represent a bedroom, courtroom, prison, or field of battle.
    • A table with a chair placed at its side represents a high wall or mountain peak.
    • Facial makeup and colored costumes denote social status, official rank, and moral character.
    • Highly stylized hand gestures and bodily poses convey specific inner emotions (embarrassment, helpless grief, rage).

Major Figures in Chinese Literature and Philosophy

  • Confucius (Kong Qiu / 551 B.C. – 479 B.C.):

    • Founder of Confucianism; established core social ethics, moral responsibility, respect for elders, and state governance structures.

  • Lao Tzu (6th Century B.C.):

    • Founder of Taoism; advocated simplicity, quietude, alignment with the natural order (Tao), and effortless action (Wu Wei).

  • Chuang Tzu (4th Century B.C.):

    • Primary early interpreter of Taoism. Served briefly as a low-level court official.
    • Known for his eccentric lifestyle, indifferent to public praise, political power, or material wealth.

  • Lieh Tzu (4th Century B.C.):

    • Taoist philosopher whose teachings diverged from Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu.
    • Argued for determinism: that a strict chain of cause and effect governs all cosmic events and human choices.

  • Liu An (172 B.C. – 122 B.C.):

    • Han dynasty royal (Prince of Huainan), Taoist scholar, and grandson of the Han dynasty's founder.
    • Patronized scholars to compile wide-ranging essays on cosmology, politics, ethics, and metaphysics.
    • Historically credited with the invention of tofu over 2,000 years ago.

Illustration of Tofu Production and Prince Liu An

  • Ssu-ma Ch'ien (145 B.C. – 90 B.C.):

    • The definitive "Grand Historian" of China.
    • Authored the Records of the Historian (Shiji), documenting nearly 3,000 years of history across 500,000 characters written on bamboo strips.

  • Li Po (A.D. 701 – 762):

    • Major T'ang Dynasty poet and devout Taoist.
    • Led a wandering, romantic lifestyle known for wine consumption and courtly eccentricities.
    • Expressed transcendent, otherworldly themes through nature imagery; frequently folded his written poems into toy paper boats to float down rivers.

  • Tu Fu (A.D. 712 – 770):

    • Major T'ang Dynasty poet, Confucian moralist, and social realist.
    • Detailed the political breakdown of the empire, military devastation, imperial extravagance, and the suffering of common citizens.

  • Wang Wei (A.D. 699 – 759):

    • T'ang Dynasty court official, painter, and poet who retired to a countryside retreat to study Chan Buddhism with monks.
    • Renowned for concise, visual poetry that mimicked traditional monochrome brush painting.

  • Po Chu-I (A.D. 772 – 846):

    • T'ang poet born shortly after Tu Fu's death during an era of foreign invasion and political instability.
    • Wrote critical social commentary poetry opposing economic inequality and government corruption.

  • Li Ch'ing-chao (A.D. 1084 – 1151):

    • Prominent Sung Dynasty author, celebrated as China's greatest female poet.
    • Raised in an aristocratic environment trained in literature and arts.
    • Specialized in the Tz'u poetic form, composing verses on her marriage, personal joy, and poignant solitude.

  • Chou Shu-jen / Lu Hsun (1881 – 1936):

    • Recognized as the "father of modern Chinese short stories."
    • Integrated Western literary techniques into modern Chinese writing, focusing on social critique, poverty, women's rights, and intellectual stagnation.

  • Wu Cheng'en (1500 – 1582):

    • Ming Dynasty novelist and poet.
    • Authored Journey to the West, a classical comic novel based on the historical 7th-century pilgrimage of Buddhist monk Xuanzang (602–664) to India.