The Grandeur of the Qing

The Kangxi and Qianlong Emperors

• Qing Dynasty lasted 268 years, with significant influence from two monarchs:

  • Kangxi Emperor (1662-1722)

  • Qianlong Emperor (1736-1796)

• Their combined reigns (~120 years) shaped Qing political, economic, and cultural legacy.

Kangxi Emperor (1662-1772)

Early Reign:

• Ascended the throne at age 8, gaining independence from regents early on.

• Recruited scholars from the Yangzi River delta (the South), integrating Confucian ideals into governance to win over Chinese elites and populace.

Achievements:

• Stabilized the empire by suppressing rebellions and uniting the Manchu heirarchy.

• Turned focus to economic prosperity and cultural patronage in the latter half of his reign.

Cultural Contributions:

• Commissioned the Southern Inspection Tours (Nanxuntu), 12 scrolls documenting his journey from Beijing to southern economic and cultural centers.

• His second tour was particularly celebrated for demonstrating unity and winning Chinese loyalty.

Qianlong Emperor (1736-1796)

Expansion of Empire:

• Extended China’s borders to unprecedented sizes, including Tibet, central Asia, parts of modern-day Russia, and control over Southeast Asia and Korea.

• Established China as a dominant force in East Asia militarily, politically, and culturally.

Creation of a Multiethnic State:

• Incorporated Han, Mongols, Tibetians, Manchus, and others, supporting their indigenous traditions.

• Promoted Tibetian Buddhism, Manchu Shamanism, and Mongol religious practices.

“Universal Ruler” Ideology:

• Adapted his identity to different groups in the empire:

  • Tibetians: Portrayed as a reincarnation of bodhisattva Manjusri.

  • Mongols: Adopted the role of a steppe prince.

  • Han Chinese: Presented as a Confucian scholar and art patron.

• Welcomed Jesuit missionaries as subjects of the “Universal Monarch.”

Patronage of Arts and Culture

• Vastly supported arts, literature, and cultural preservation.

• Commissioned complications of literary works and collected numerous ancient Chinese artifacts.

• Collections formed under his reign became the foundation for today’s national palace musuems in Beijing and Taipei.

Legacy of Both Emperors

• Both Monarchs conducted Southern Inspection Tours, commissioning scrolls (Nanxuntu) to document their travels.

• Kangxi laid the groundwork for Confucian governance, while Qianlong expanded and unified the empire into a multiethnic state with rich cultural and artistic achievements.

The Grandeur of the Qing State

The Emperor and the Mandate of Heaven

• Mandate of Heaven:

  • Chinese emperors ruled with the Mandate of Heaven, requiring them to act as sage kings mediating cosmic forces.

  • Unlike European “divine right of kings,” legitimacy was conditional; emperors could lost the Mandate if they failed their duties.

• Qing Justification:

  • Qing dynasty claimed the Mandate after overthrowing the Ming but honored Ming emperors cermonially, affirming their own legitimacy as successors.

Integrated Bureaucracy

• Hierarchical system with power flowing from the emperor to local magistrates at the county level.

• Officials earned positions through a merit-based examination system, not hereditary priviledge.

• The bureaucracy effectively ruled a vast and diverse empire fairly.

Examination System for Government Service

• Confucian Learning

  • Candidates studied Confucian classics to build moral, ethical, and administrative competence.

  • Examinations progressed from county to imperial levels, with top candidates joining the elite bureaucracy.

• Education often required wealth; families pooled resources to support promising members.

A Government of “Elite Commoners”

• Officials came from the educated elite among commoners, not aristocrats.

• Maintained ties to non-government occupations, balancing state duties with local interests.

• Admired by Enlightment and Transcendentalist thinkers in Europe and America (e.g. Voltaire, Emerson).

Dual Identity of Officials

• Offcials alternated between:

  • Serving the emperor and the state

  • Advocating for their local communities

• Rule of Avoidance:

  • Officials could not serve in their home or adjacent provinces to prevent local favortism.

  • Frequent rotations (three years per post) ensured loyalty to the empire but limited local familiarity.

Population Growth

• Qing ruled a rapidly growing population:

  • ~100 million in 1600

  • ~300 million by 1800

  • ~400 million by 1911

• Bureaucratic system adapted well but struggled at the local level.

• Local magistrates were overwhelmed, often managing as many as 300,000 people with limited resources

Tax Policy Innovations

• Yongzheng Emperor’s Tax Reforms:

  • Created revenue streamsfor both central and local governments, reducing corruption.

  • Local officials gained predictable budgets for infrastructure projects (e.g. roads, granaries)

• Taxes based primarily on agriculture and salt monopolies; the commerical sector remained untaxed.

• Population growth outpaced reforms, contributing to fiscal strain in the late Qing.

Secret Palace Memorial System

• Direct communication system between provincial officials and the emperor.

• Secret memorials bypassed court bureaucracy and ensured accurate local reports.

• Supported effective policy adjustments and strengthened state control during the “High Qing” period (Kangxi and Qianlong reigns).

Qing Bureaucratic Challenges

• Balancing uniform imperial policies with local diversity (coastal vs. inland provinces, agricultural vs. non-agricultural economies).

• The tension between local and national interests reflected in officials’ memorials to the emperor.

• Despite challenges, Qing institutions sustained the state for over 260 years.

The Grandeur of the Qing Economy

Economic Expansion During Late Ming and Qing Dynasties

• Ming Period

  • Economy expanded with new markets and interprovincial trade.

  • Chinese merchants engaged actively in Southeast Asia, reducing the need for state-sponsored maritime expeditions (e.g. Ming Voyages).

• Qing Period

  • Economic growth and commericialization continued until the Opium War (1840s).

  • A dynamic domestic economy with signs of early industralization.

Myths About the Qing States and Merchants

• Misconception: Qing state was anti-merchant due to Confucian ideals.

• Reality:

  • Confucianism did not impede commerce

  • Qing policies generally allowed trade with minimal state interference.

China as a Vast Continental Market

• Unlike Europe’s fragmented states, Qing China was a unified market with no barriers to internal trade.

• Many important markets existed across China:

  • Specialty Goods:

    • Medicinal herbs moved from West to East

    • Cotton transported from North to Central regions

    • Rice trade locally due to bulk and availability.

  • Proliferation of market towns ensured ~80% of the population lived within a day’s travel of a market.

Development of Market and Merchant Structures

• Market Evolution

  • Transition from periodic to permanent markets with full-time merchants

  • Creation of a heirachical market system: regional markets, sub-regional markets, and peroducer-serving markets.

• Market Hierarchy

  • Local peddlers and long-distance traders coexisted

  • Guild halls established in distant regions to support traveling merchants, particularly those unfamiliar with local dialects.

Role of Currency in Economic Growth

• Taxation in Money

  • Taxes paid in copper or silver pushed farmers into market activities.

• Bimetallic Currency

  • Copper coins or everyday use; silver for larger transactions and taxes

  • Development of remittance banks to facilitate safe long-distance trade using certificates instead of physical silver

• Integration with World Economy

  • High demand for silver led to the influx of Mexican silver dollars via Southeast Asia

  • Silver fueled the Qing economy in exchange for tea, porcelain, and silk exported to Europe.

Grand Canal and Internal Trade

• Significance

  • Essential for transporting grain, salt, and other goods to the northern capital, Beijing.

  • Taxes paid in grain were moved along the canal, highlighting its critical role in the Qing economy.

State Control of the Economy

• Reality of Qing Policy

  • Qing state practiced a laissez-faire approach, focusing on parameters rather than strict regulation.

  • Local guilds and communities largely managed economic activities

  • Expectations: Monopoly on salt transport, which required licensing for revenue generation.

• Contrast with Japan:

  • By Qing times, China had abandoned hereditary occupational restrictions, unlike Japan.

Silver in the Qing Economy

• Global Connections

  • China’s high demand for silver integrated it into the global economy.

  • Western nations imported Chinese goods (e.g. tea, silk) in exchange for silver.

  • The inflow of silver contributed significantly to 18th-century economic growth.

The Canton System (1760)

• Creation

  • Foreign trade limited to Canton port in response to growing concerns over colonial activity (e.g. British East India Company in India).

• Rationale

  • Canton offered adequate facilities for foreign traders, including a concentration of merchants and capital.

  • The system ensured centralized management of foreign trade while generating revenue through taxation.

The Grandeur of Art During the Qing

Three Major Artistic Groups

• The Individualists

  • Loyalists to the fallen Ming Dynasty, often calling themselves “leftover subjects of the Ming”

  • Expressed personal feelings of resistance, sadness, or reclusion over the Manchu conquest

  • Many became Buddhist monks and used art (painting, poetry, calligraphy) as a form of emotional expression rather than imitation of past styles.

• The Orthodox School

  • Focused on preserving Chinese traditional culture by studying and replicating earlier masters

  • Created albums showcasing a range of earlier stylistic traditions

  • Exemplified by artists like Wang Hui, who was recruited by the Kangxi Emperor to paint monumental works like the Southern Inspection Tour scrolls.

• Commerical and Court Artists

  • Specialized in large-scale decorative works for the imperial court.

  • Followed representational styles inspired by the Song dynasty’s meticulous painting techniques

  • Created documentary and commemorative works for imperial purposes.

Scholar-Artists and Literari Traditions

• Scholar-artists combined painting with poetry and calligraphy for self-expression

• Painting emphasized personal and emotional reflection over external realism.

• Works often included inscriptions or poetry added by later owners, transforming them into dialogues spanning generations.

Artistic Philosophies

• Personal Expression

  • Chinese “high art” valued emotional and interior representation over external realism

  • European “realistic” styles, though appreciated for documentation, were not considered “high art” in China.

• Ongoing Interaction

  • Later connoisseurs added seals, poetry, or comments to works, turning them into collaborative, evolving artifacts

Approaches to Representing Space

• Chinese Style

  • Used a moving perspective in scrolls, with shifting vantage points as viewers unrolled sections

  • Focused on fluid composition, enabling exploration of space rather than strict adherence to perspective.

• European Influence

  • Jesuit missionaries introduced techniques like linear perspective and chiaroscuro

  • Artists like Xu Yang, influenced by European styles, created more realistic but less dynamic depictions in works like Qianlong’s Southern Inspection Tour scrolls.

• Contrast with Wang Hui

  • Wang Hui’s traditional style highlighted recognizable views and expressive energy.

  • Xu Yang’s realistic style often constrained by consistency of perspective, limiting traditional storytelling.

Porcelain and Chinese Decorative Arts

• Export and Influence

  • Chinese porcelain was highly sought in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries

  • European centers lacked the technical knowledge to produce true porcelain, leading to imitations.

  • Chinese porcelain shaped European tastes and decorative arts.

• Industrialized Production in China

  • Jingdezhen kilns in Jiangxi became centers of mass production, employing specialized workers for different stages of porcelain making

  • Porcelain production resembled early industrialization, influencing global trade and possibly contributing to industrial developments in England.

Summary of European Influence

• Jesuit missionaries like Giuseppe Castiglione influenced Qing court art with Western realism.

• European techniques enhanced the documentary value of Qing artworks but often clashed with Chinese artistic traditions emphasizing fluidity and emotional depth.

Recording the Imperial Southern Inspection Tours

Overview of Qing Imperial Inspection Tours

• Unique to Chinese history, Qing emperors undertook multiple tours across the empire.

• Purpose: Consolidate Manchu rule, maintain legitimacy, and strengthen ties with regional elites.

• Both Kangxi and Qianlong emperors completed six Southern Inspection Tours during their reigns.

Kangxi Emperor’s Second Southern Tour (1689)

• Significance

  • Longer, more grandiose than his first tour.

  • Occurred after the suppression of the Three Feudatories rebellion.

  • Marked by imperial pomp and rich cultural engagements.

• Nanxuntu (Picture of the Southern Tour)

  • Twelve monumental scrolls commissioned under Wang Hui, a leading Orthodox School artist.

  • Took 8 years to complete; depicted the journey from Beijing to key cultural centers like Yangzhou, Nanjing, Suzhou, and Hangzhou.

  • Third scroll: Features Kangxi’s visit to Mount Tai, emphasizing his legitimacy as a ruler who integrated Confucian, Daoist, and Buddhist traditions.

  • Seventh scroll: Depicts fertile lands of the Yangzi delta, focusing on Suzhou and its silk industry.

Qianlong Emperor’s First Southern Tour (1751)

• Significance

  • Highlighted his control over critical economic and cultural regions, mirroring his grandfather’s tours

  • Twelve scrolls directed by court artist Xu Yang and completed in 1770

  • Emphasized Qing efforts in flood prevention and economic management

• Key Scrolls

  • Fourth scroll: Showcases Qianlong inspecting water control at the Huai and Yellow Rivers, critical for flood prevention and agricultural stability.

  • Sixth scroll: Depicts the emperor entering Suzhou, highlighting its cultural and economic importance (e.g. silk production and trade via the Grand Canal.)

Key Sites and Their Significance

• Mount Tai (Kangxi’s Third Scroll)

  • Sacred moutain central to Confucian, Daoist, and Buddhist traditions.

  • Historically used by emperors to affirm cosmic legitimacy and harmony

  • Kangxi’s visit as a Manchu emperor underscored his intent to align with traditional Han rulership ideals.

• Suzhou and the Silk Industry

  • Feature in the seventh (Kangxi) and sixth (Qianlong) scrolls

  • Commerical and cultural hub, home to the emperor’s Silk Commissioner

  • Silk production was an imperial monopoly, generating private revenue for the emperor’s household.

  • Visits symbolized the emperor’s political alliance with the region’s gentry and economic elites

• Grand Canal

  • Major trade route for grain, salt, and other commodities

  • Ensured Beijing’s supply chain and economic connectivity

  • Appears prominently in both emperors’ scrolls, showing its critical role in the empire.

Artistic Production of the Scrolls

• Creation Process

  • Drafts sketched by the master artist (Wang Hui for Kangxi, Xu Yang for Qianlong) and submitted for imperial approval.

  • Final scrolls painted by teams of specialists (e.g. landscape, architecture, human figures) under the master’s supervision

• Characteristics

  • Monumental size: Up to 85 feet long, richly detailed with vibrant colors

  • Focused on political and ceremonial moments, not meant for public display.

Artistic and Historical Insights

• Symbolism

  • Commemorated the emperors’ legitimacy and accomplishments

  • Served as historical documents detailing daily life, landscapes, and cultural practices

• Contrast Between Kangxi and Qianlong Scrolls

  • Kangxi’s scrolls (Orthodox School): Traditional Chinese style with expressive figures and fluid perspectives.

  • Qianlong’s scrolls (Xu Yang): Influenced by European techniques (e.g. linear perspective), resulting in more static but realistic depictions.

Economic and Political Themes

• Flood Management (Qianlong’s Fourth Scroll)

  • Qianlong emphasized water control measures at the Huai-Yellow River confluence to prevent flooding and protect arable land.

• Silk and Commerce

  • Suzhou’s silk industry vital to the imperial privy purse and over economic health.

  • Visits underscored the strategic importance of controlling commerce and cultivating regional support.

European Influence and Perception

• European Jesuits admired China’s advanced economy and cultural sophistication during this period.

• Reports of Qing tours and cultural practices influenced European interest in naturalistic gardens and other Chinese tradition.