Edexcel History: Conflict in the Middle East 1945-95 Study Notes

Timeline of Conflict in the Middle East: 1945–1970

The period following World War II was marked by a sequence of volatile events that shaped the modern Middle East. In $1945$, the global conflict of WWII ended, immediately followed by tensions in the British Mandate of Palestine. On $22^{nd}$ July $1945$ (or alternatively cited as $1946$ in timeline records), the King David Hotel was bombed. By $1947$, the United Nations became deeply involved, passing UN Resolution $181$. The year $1948$ saw the creation of the Israeli Defence Forces and the start of the Arab-Israeli War, which lasted into $1949$. In $1950$, the Knesset passed the Law of Return. The mid-$1950s$ were dominated by the rise of Gamal Abdel Nasser, who became President of Egypt in $1954$. Key military events during this decade included Israeli attacks on Gaza in $1955$ and the invasion of Sinai in $1956$, alongside the broader Suez Crisis of $1956$. From $1958$ to $1961$, the United Arab Republic was formed. The $1960s$ introduced the Cairo Conference in $1964$ and the Egyptian-Syrian Pact in $1966$. The year $1967$ was pivotal, featuring raids on Samu, conflict between Israel and Syria, and a raid on a Fatah base in Jordan, all culminating in the Six-Day War. UN Resolution $242$ and the Arab Conference at Khartoum followed the war later that year. The decade closed with plane hijacks in $1970$ and the expulsion of the PLO from Jordan.

Timeline of Conflict in the Middle East: 1970–1995

The $1970s$ began with the death of Nasser and the accession of Anwar Sadat in $1970$. In $1972$, the Black September attack occurred at the Munich Olympics, followed by the Yom Kippur War in $1973$. Diplomatic shifts occurred when Yasser Arafat addressed the UN in $1974$, and the Suez Canal reopened in $1975$. In $1977$, Sadat visited Israel and Menachem Begin visited Egypt, leading to the Camp David Accords in $1978$. Despite a PLO bus bomb near Tel Aviv in $1978$, the Treaty of Washington was signed in $1979$. The $1980s$ saw the $1982$ Israeli invasion of Lebanon (Operation Peace for Galilee) and the start of the First Intifada in $1987$, as well as another UN speech by Arafat in $1988$. The final decade of this period included the Gulf War and the end of the Cold War in $1991$, the Oslo Accords in $1993$, the Israel-Jordan Peace Treaty in $1994$, and the establishment of the Palestinian National Authority in $1994$, ending with the Oslo II Accord in $1995$.

Birth of the State of Israel (1945–1963)

The British Mandate, which provided the legal authority for Britain to rule over Palestine as granted by the League of Nations in $1923$, required Britain to protect the rights of Palestinian Arabs, establish a home for Jews, and prepare the country for independence. Tensions rose as Palestinian Arabs sought independence and resisted giving up land, while Jewish people were pleased with the prospect of a homeland and established the Jewish Agency to facilitate immigration. On $26^{th}$ Nov $1947$, the UN voted on Resolution $181$, a partition plan proposed by the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP). Following the end of the British Mandate on $14^{th}$ May $1948$, David Ben-Gurion announced the new state of Israel. On $15^{th}$ May $1948$, Israel was invaded by Egypt, Syria, Transjordan, Lebanon, and Iraq. Despite having only $5$ field guns compared to the Arab states' $150$, Israel survived due to a UN-organized truce on $11^{th}$ June $1948$. During this time, Israel ignored an arms embargo to purchase $300,000$ rifles and $47$ million rounds of ammunition from Czechoslovakia. Israel eventually won the war, having mobilized an army of $35,000$ compared to the Arab forces of $20,000$ to $25,000$. An armistice was signed with Transjordan, Egypt, Lebanon, and Syria, though Iraq refused.

Early Israeli Statehood and Middle Eastern Tensions

Significant events defined the early years of the Israeli state. The Irgun, led by members disguised as Arabs, bombed the King David Hotel—the administrative headquarters of the British Mandate—on $22^{nd}$ July $1945$, killing $91$ people (comprising $41$ Arabs, $28$ Britons, and $17$ Jews). In July $1950$, the Knesset passed the Law of Return, granting any Jew worldwide the right to Israeli citizenship; approximately $700,000$ people utilized this law. Domestically, Ben-Gurion formed the Israeli Defence Forces (IDF), primarily from the Haganah, and mandated conscription for all non-Arab adults. Regionally, the Arab League boycotted all trade with Israel and penalized foreign countries trading with the state. Military flare-ups continued, such as the Feb $1955$ IDF raid on Egyptian headquarters in Gaza, which killed $38$ soldiers. In July $1956$, after the US and Britain withdrew loans for the Aswan Dam, Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal. This led to a collusive plan where Britain and France encouraged Israel to invade Sinai, allowing the European powers to intervene as "peacekeepers" to retake the canal. However, US pressure forced a withdrawal, revealing British weakness.

The Escalating Conflict (1964–1973)

The Cairo Conference in January $1964$, attended by $13$ Arab states, aimed to address Israeli policies and highlighted the plight of Palestinian refugees. Fatah, founded by Yassir Arafat and Khalīl al-Wazīr, gained Syrian support after a government change in $1966$. Following guerrilla raids and a reprisal at Samu, tensions peaked in $1967$. The USSR provided false intelligence to Arab nations suggesting Israel was mobilizing on the Syrian border. Nasser responded by withdrawing UN forces from Sinai and closing the Straits of Tiran. The Six-Day War began on $5^{th}$ June $1967$ with a preemptive Israeli strike that destroyed the Egyptian air force. By the war's end on $10^{th}$ June, Israel had quadrupled its territory, capturing the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip from Egypt, the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria. Israel subsequently annexed East Jerusalem and placed other captured lands under military control as a buffer zone. UN Resolution $242$, adopted on $22^{nd}$ Nov $1967$, attempted to establish peace by urging Arab states to accept Israel's right to exist.

The Yom Kippur War and Terrorism

Following the Six-Day War, a "War of Attrition" persisted over the Suez Canal, with the USSR providing Egypt with $100$ fighter planes and SAM-3 anti-aircraft missiles. In $1973$, Egypt and Syria launched a surprise attack on the Jewish Holy Day of Yom Kippur. While the UN adopted Resolution $338$ (followed by $339$ and $340$) to stop the fighting, the war only concluded on Oct $26^{th}$ after Israel signed ceasefires. Success in the war restored Sadat's reputation as a hero, while the Israeli government faced intense criticism, leading to the resignation of the Prime Minister and Defence Minister. During this era, terrorism also rose; the PFLP hijacked planes in $1970$ to highlight the Palestinian cause, leading to the PLO's expulsion from Jordan. Most notably, the Black September group attacked the $1972$ Munich Olympics, resulting in the deaths of $9$ Israeli athletes.

Attempts at a Solution (1974–1995)

The early $1970s$ were also marked by the Oil Crisis, where OPEC cut production by $25$ percent and quadrupled prices to pressure the US. Henry Kissinger utilized "shuttle diplomacy" to negotiate peace, eventually leading to the reopening of the Suez Canal on $5^{th}$ June $1975$. Diplomacy continued with Sadat’s visit to the Knesset and Menachem Begin’s return visit to Egypt. In $1978$, President Jimmy Carter hosted the Camp David talks, resulting in two frameworks for peace, for which Sadat and Begin received the Nobel Peace Prize. The $1979$ Treaty of Washington formalized peace between Egypt and Israel, ensuring Israel's withdrawal from Sinai and navigation rights in the Suez Canal. In $1982$, Israel launched Operation Peace for Galilee, invading Lebanon with $70,000$ troops to force the PLO out to Tunisia. The First Intifada began in $1987$ after several Palestinians were killed, leading to a five-year conflict where $1,200$ Palestinians were killed and $120,000$ were injured.

The Road to the Oslo Accords and Final Peace Efforts

In $1988$, Yasser Arafat shifted the PLO's stance at the UN, recognizing Israel's existence and renouncing terrorism. The geopolitical landscape changed drastically with the Gulf War ($1990-1991$), where Arafat's support for Saddam Hussein damaged his reputation, and the end of the Cold War ($1991$), which stripped the PLO of Soviet funding and allowed the US to pressure Israel by threatening to withhold aid. In $1993$, Yitzhak Rabin and Arafat negotiated the Oslo Accords in secret, establishing the Palestinian National Authority. They shared the Nobel Peace Prize in $1993$. In $1994$, the Israel-Jordan Peace Treaty was signed. The Oslo II Accord in $1995$ further divided the West Bank into various zones of control and made Gaza fully Palestinian. However, domestic opposition in Israel led to the assassination of Yitzhak Rabin only two months after Oslo II by an Israeli who viewed him as a traitor.

Educational Assessment and Examination Structure

Examination candidates are required to master specific formats for history papers. For Paper 2 Section A, Question 1 ($8$ marks), students must explain two consequences of an event, such as the Arab-Israeli War ($1948-49$), using two PEE (Point, Evidence, Explain) paragraphs. Question 2 ($8$ marks) requires a narrative account using three (L)PEEL paragraphs in chronological order, such as analyzing the key events of the Yom Kippur War ($1973$) utilizing UN Resolution $242$ and the Six-Day War as stimuli. Question 3 ($16$ marks) involves explaining the importance of two specific factors, such as Yasser Arafat’s $1988$ UN speech or the $1947$ UN partition border. This question requires two PEEL (Point, Evidence, Explain, Link) paragraphs for each of the two chosen topics. Success depends on the inclusion of statistics, specific dates, proper names, and clear causal explanation.