5.2 - The Revolutions
AP World History
5.2
The Revolutions
What was it?
- As the ideas of the Enlightenment spread, the desire of constitutional governments based around democratic principles grew.
- The ideals of progress, reason, and natural law would come into conflict with the traditional ideals of consistency, faith, and order.
- These desires would eventually lead to unrest and ultimately revolution throughout Europe and the Americas.
- Often these revolutions would be led by bourgeois liberals who had to contend with internal radicals on top of the external conservatives.
—
Origins: American Revolution
- The revolutionary leaders of America were highly influenced by the philosophes of the Enlightenment.
- Popular sovereignty, separation of powers, natural rights are all ideas highlighted in documents from the American Revolution and all have origins in the Enlightenment.
- The revolutionary leaders were also influenced by the new economic ideas, physiocracy and capitalism.
- Physiocracy is an economic system in which the wealth of a nation is solely derived from agricultural products and agricultural labor is to be highly valued.
- All other forms of goods/services are unproductive and add no value to a nation.
- Whereas mercantilism focused on the selling of goods for the accumulation of gold and creating a favorable balance of trade.
- The combined factors of unhappiness with their colonial status, their emphasis on resource production, growing political independence of colonial legislatures, and distance between England and the colonies would lead the American colonials to rebel against English authority.
Conflict: American Revolution
- Unofficially beginning in April 1776, the American Colonies would outline their grievances with the British government in the Declaration of Independence.
- Known as the Twenty-Seven Grievances, the issues outlined in the Declaration included refusal to assent to colonial legislation, cutting off trade, keeping British armies in the colonies.
- Using Locke’s concept of governing for public good and right of rebellion the Colonials asserted that British treatment of the colonies outlined in the Declaration showed a lack of responsibility on the British government’s part and thus a legitimate reason for Colonial independence.
- The Second Continental Congress acted as the de facto national government for the colonies until after the war.
Resolution: American Revolution
- Though they won very few significant battles, the colonials held out and eventually convinced European governments to support their efforts.
- It would be a combination of Colonial unwillingness to admit defeat, growing international conflict, and the high cost that would eventually convince the British to cut their losses.
- The revolution would officially end 1783 with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles.
- The Colonials would gain independence and all the North American British territory south of Canada to the Mississippi.
- European powers traded colonial possessions in other parts of the world.
- Following the Revolution, the colonials structured a federal government to unify the different colonies, which up to this point had acted as individual nations.
- This federal government, as created by the Articles of Confederation, however was ineffective and essentially non-functional.
- Had no executive or judicial branches at a federal level.
- International politics was practically impossible.
- Could not force Congressional delegates to attend, could not tax the citizenry, required unanimous approval to make any modifications on a federal level, lack any kind of enforcement powers.
- After putting down Shay’s Rebellion, an armed uprising against the tax policies of Massachusetts, many realized a change was needed when the Constitutional Convention was called.
Resolution: The Constitution
- Recognizing the need for a federal government with at least some authority over the states, the Constitution of the United States was written and ratified.
- A living document, the Constitution addressed many of the shortcomings of the Articles of Confederation while still reaffirming the status of state governments and the people.
- To address concerns over the power of the Federal Government, ten amendments would be passed to limit the federal authority.
—
II. The New Zealand Wars
- After colonization by the British made official by annexation of New Zealand in 1840, English control over Maori affairs increased, as did pressure for their land.
- These issues resulted in a series of wars between the Maori and British collectively known as the New Zealand Wars.
- Though the Maori tribes fought together, developing a sense of Maori nationalism, by 1872, the British had won.
III. The French Revolution
- In France in the 1780s, revolutionary ideals took on their own spin, summarized in the slogan liberte, egalite, et fraternite (liberty, equality, and fraternity).
- These ideas, which struck many people as radical, were popularized throughout Europe in the writings of the philosophes.
- However, additional causes lead to the French Revolution.
- France had long spent more than it was taking in, partly to finance a series of wars.
- Among the spending was the economic aid that France supplied the Americans in their revolution.
- To address its financial situation, the French government called a meeting of the Estates-General in spring 1789.
- Three sectors of society, or estates, made up the Estates-General: The clergy (religious officials), the nobility, and the commoners.
- However, inequality in voting caused the commoners (who made up 97% of French society) to break away and form a new body, the National Assembly.
- In the early days of the French Revolution, moderates such as Marquis de Lafayette seemed to be on the point of establishing a constitutional monarchy.
- The National Assembly began meeting in Paris, but then the king threatened to arrest the leaders.
- Angry crowds rioted in Paris and elsewhere in France.
- On July 14, 1789, a crowd in Paris stormed the Bastille, a former prison that symbolizes the abuses of the monarchy in the corrupt aristocracy.
- In the French countryside, peasants rose up against nobles, even burning some manor houses.
- Some royal officials fled to France.
- The king was forced to accept a new government with a National Assembly in charge.
- The date July 14, 1789 became French Independence Day.
- The most permanent changes were enacted early in the revolution - The abolition of feudalism and the adoption of the Declaration of The Rights of Man, a statement declaring basic human rights.
- Louis XVI and the nobility refused to accept the limited monarchy, which led to dissatisfaction among radical groups such as the Jacobins inspired the establishment of the first French republic in 1792.
Napoleon’s Mistakes
- The Continental System, 1806
- Have continental Europe only trade with each other and not Britain.
- does not hurt Great Britain
- British respond with stronger blockade
- hurts France economically
- The Peninsular War (Invasion of Spain), 1808
- Invasion and overthrowing of Spanish kingdom, puts brother on throne
- 1st major use of guerrilla warfare in Europe (by Spanish forces)
- 300,000 French troops killed
- The Invasion of Russia, 1812
- Invade Russia over not following Continental System (i.e. trading with Britain).
- 420,000 of Napoleon’s more seasoned veterans went, only around 10,000 came back.
- Scorched-earth policy: destroying all usable land and products as one retreats.
- Exhaustion, hunger, and cold are major killers of Napoleon’s troops.
Russia, Prussia, Britain, Sweden, and Austria declare war on France
- October 1813 - Napoleon defeated at Leipzig
- January 1814 - allied forces take Paris
- Napoleon surrendered and gave up throne
- Napoleon banished to Elba
- King Louis XVIII restored to throne
Napoleon’s Return
- King Louis XVIII = unpopular
- March 1815 - went back to France
- welcomed by joyful crowds
- volunteers joined his army
- becomes Emperor again
- European powers gather their armies..
Battle of Waterloo, 1815
- Who - The French vs. The British & Prussians
- What - Land battle; major loss for France
- When - June 1815
- Where - Near the village of Waterloo, Belgium
- Significance - Europe’s final defeat of Napoleon
Nationalism in Europe - Unification and Identity
- Revolutions Disrupt Europe
- In the 1st half of the 1800s, three forces struggled for power in Europe.
- Conservatives - wealthy property owners and nobility who wanted to keep the monarchy.
- Liberals - mostly middle-class business leaders and merchants who wanted to give more power to elected parliaments (only in which the educated and landowners could vote).
- Radicals - wanted drastic change to extend democracy to the people as a whole.
- The Idea of the Nation-State
- As conservatives, liberals and radicals debated, a new movement began - Nationalism.
- Nationalism - belief that one’s greatest loyalty should not be to a king or an empire but to a nation of people who share a common culture and history.
- When the nation also had its own independent government, it became a nation-state.
- Unification of Italy
- In 1800, the Italian Peninsula was made up of many independent states.
- They were divided by: political boundaries, cultural differences, language differences, trade barriers, and poor transportation.
- Italy Begins Unification
- Young Italy - secret society for Italian unification formed.
- Guiseppe Mazzini led a movement for a nation-state (political organization with one nationality).
- Mazzini began unity movement
- attempted to push Austrians out
- failed after losing help of Pope
- Italians turned to King Charles Albert of Sardinia (Italian kingdom) to lead the movement.
Sardinia Takes Over Movement
- Charles Albert dies and leaves son, Victor Emmanuel II, king to lead the unity movement.
- Emmanuel II hired Count Camillo di Cavour to help him unify Italy.
- Encouraged “Risorgimento” - resurgence or rebirth for united Italy.
- Cavour involved Italy in the Crimean War.
- Won equality among European nations.
- Promoted industrialization for Italy.
Guiseppe Garibaldi
- Military commander with his “Red Shirts” led South Italy to overtake and unite with Sicily.
- Strengthened Southern Italy as one territory.
North and South Unite
- Cavour led troops to control northern regions of Italian states.
- Forced Garibaldi to offer a merger.
- United North and South Italy as a constitutional Monarchy.
- Victor Emmanuel II became the first king of united Italy.
Italy
- Victor Emmanuel led united nation
- Completed national unity with new capital of Rome in 1871
- Passed voting reforms
- Created united military
- Created educational system
- Initiated industrialization and worker laws
- Built transportation and waterway systems
- Formed alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary
- All new nations looking to build system of defense from established nations of Europe
Unification in Germany
- Territory including 39 separate German states.
- Loosely tied together as the German Confederation.
- DIet (assembly) met at Frankfurt.
- Austria & Prussia dominated.
Germany
- Remaining divided and economically disadvantaged due to Reformation & Thirty Years War.
- Austria feared German unification.
- competition
- German states disliked the idea of unity.
- feared domination by Prussia
Prussia Leads the Way
- Prussia was strongest German State
- well organized government
- Junkers (aristocratic landowners) and Business Class
- strong economy
- Zollverein (economic union reducing trade barriers)
- William I, king of Prussia initiated move
- appointed Otto von Bismarck as prime minister
Otto Von Bismarck
- Policy of “realpolitik”
- right of a nation-state to pursue its own advantages by any means.
- Took government control.
- Built up strong army
Movement Toward Unity
- Bismarck led German states into 3 wars
- War against Denmark
- made Europe aware of Prussian strength
- Seven Weeks’ War against Austria
- separated Austria from German states
- Franco-Prussian War
- gained Bismarck support from all German states for unification
A United Germany
- Germany united 25 states into one nation in 1871
- William I assumed title of Kaiser (emperor)
- Bismarck became German Chancellor (chief minister)
Bismarck’s Germany
- Fought cultural striggle against Catholics.
- Industrialized Germany
- Brought poor wages and long work days
- Socialist party grew asking for reform
- Bismarck resigned under the new king, William II
- William II built up German Industry
- Passed workplace reforms
- Developed strong military