Self-Esteem and Self-Efficacy

Introduction

The relationship between self-esteem, academic self-concept, and academic achievement is theoretically and practically important, but not fully understood.
Many educators promoting self-esteem are unfamiliar with relevant research.
Positive psychology emphasizes how individuals can maximize their potential, with positive self-beliefs at its core.
Self-efficacy beliefs significantly impact students' academic performance, influencing their ability to master academic tasks.

The Importance of Self-Esteem

Belief in the importance of self-esteem for success is deeply embedded in the American school system.
The idea that positive self-esteem leads to achievement is widely accepted, though this causal relationship is debated.
Rival theories and credible research on student achievement are emerging.

Defining Self-Esteem

The National Association for Self-Esteem defines self-esteem as the experience of being capable and worthy of happiness.
The concept of "self" is prominent in American culture, covering various aspects like self-actualization, self-concept, and self-efficacy.
Psychologists use terms like self-concept, self-esteem, self-regard, and self-image interchangeably to describe how we view ourselves.
Self-esteem varies quantitatively and qualitatively, ranging from valued to not valued, capable to less capable, worthwhile to not worthwhile.
The idea of self-esteem as a construct worth considering in education is relatively recent and faces definitional challenges.

Instruments Measuring Self-Esteem

Self Description Questionnaire (SDI): Measures 11 distinct self-concept domains, departing from the global view of self-concept.
Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory: Defines self-esteem as an evaluation of oneself, indicating competence, success, significance, and worthiness.
Culture-Free Self-Esteem Inventories: Defines self-esteem as a composite of feelings, hopes, fears, thoughts, and views of oneself.
Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale: Defines self-concept as a stable set of self-attitudes reflecting self-description and evaluation.
These instruments, though similarly defined, may not measure the same thing, raising validity concerns.
It would be valid to consider a definition that is written as a sentence, or to consider an operational definition that contains an interpretable score derived from an instrument that measures what is being studied.

Global vs. Narrow Constructs of Self-Esteem
- Psychologists differentiate between global and narrow constructs of self-esteem.
  - For example, someone may have an overall high opinion of themselves but a low opinion of themselves as an athlete.
Self-esteem may not be a broad construct, but rather multiple constructs dependent on the area of life.
Self-efficacy, described by Albert Bandura, refers to personal beliefs about one's capabilities to learn or perform actions.
Educators often view self-esteem as a unified, global construct, but evidence supports a multidimensional view.

Convolutions of Self-Esteem Construct

Self-esteem is often equated with human dignity, making it an entitlement of personhood.
While all people are of equal worth, they do not possess equal skill in all tasks.
It's useful to separate the idea of being from that of doing, but difficult to carry out.

Perceptions of Reality

Narrow constructs of self-esteem can be problematic when people's views of themselves are removed from reality.
Individuals can be better or worse at certain things than they perceive themselves to be.
There is a broad and sustained interest in self-esteem and self-efficacy, with numerous scholarly articles published.

Educators and psychologists claim that positive self-perception leads to better life choices, prevents destructive behaviors, and increases achievement.
Self-esteem and academic achievement are believed to be positively associated, with a causal relationship in the esteem-achievement direction.
Carl Rogers cited a teacheClaims and Programs Related to Self-Esteem
- r's observation that students' self-concept change led to improved learning and success.

Self-Esteem: Vaccine or Fad?

Beliefs about self-esteem are deeply ingrained, influencing views on achievement and behavior.
The California Task Force to Promote Self-Esteem (CTF) aimed to address social issues through self-esteem enhancement.
John Vasconcellos envisioned self-esteem as a "social vaccine" to improve the human condition.
The CTF is now viewed as an example of faddism, with premature implementation of programs without sufficient research.
Baumeister and colleagues warned against the "dark side of high self-esteem" and cautioned against widely publicized efforts to bolster self-esteem.
Recent studies offer promising findings regarding self-esteem and self-efficacy.

Level I Research

Summarize this more

Educational theories derive from philosophy, experience, observations, and basic research.
Exploratory research involves collecting data, analyzing relationships between variables, and developing theories of causation or relationship.
Correlation does not equal causation; alternative theories may explain observed relationships.
Max Weber's theory on the relationship between Protestantism and success in capitalist ventures illustrates the complexity of correlation.
Theories can also develop from philosophical worldviews, requiring empirical research to test their validity.
Phrenology, the theory that skull conformation indicates mental faculties, was discredited due to lack of scientific evidence.
Self-esteem theory developed through the latter approach, tracing back to early humanist psychologists.
William James emphasized the influence of self-beliefs on decisions and actions.
Cooley and Mead described the self as a social entity formed by reflected appraisals from others.
Symbolic interactionists hypothesized that a positive self-concept leads to constructive behavior, while a distorted self-concept leads to deviant behavior.
These theories aimed to explain human failure and socially inadequate behaviors.
An alternative hypothesis suggests that socially inadequate behavior leads to negative self-feelings, or that causative agents exist outside the correlation.
Alfred Binet theorized that a self-critical stance is essential for intelligence and competence.
Binet viewed egotism as the natural state of childhood, with teachers helping children overcome it to achieve realistic perspectives.
Lerner contrasted "earned self-esteem" with "feel-good-now self-esteem."
Earned self-esteem is a product of learning, not a precondition.
Empirical evidence supporting self-esteem theory is limited and inconsistent.
Reviews of thousands of studies have found inconsistent or nonexistent relationships between self-esteem, achievement, and related behaviors.
Recent studies show promise, but the linkage between self-esteem and student achievement is still uncertain.
The "big fish-little pond" phenomenon examines how self-image and achievement are impacted by the setting.
This research has implications for tracking, ability grouping, and peer influence.
Academic self-confidence and academic optimism are increasingly prominent terms in scholarly publications.

Level I Research Summary

The construct of self-esteem as a global, unified entity is not established.
Self-esteem is likely context-dependent and represents complex, interrelated factors.
The relationship between self-esteem and related factors appears to be be bi-directional, serving as both cause and effect in such matters as adjustment and achievement.

Level II Research

While raising student self-esteem is complex, enhancing student achievement through self-esteem is also explored.
Self-efficacy, a component of self-esteem, may play a directional role in school outcomes.
Research on the effects of self-esteem and self-efficacy on student achievement is still in its early stages.
Recently, a more supportive link is forming between self-esteem and student achievement, a swinging of the pendulum.

Level II Research - Recent Studies

Jansen, Scherer, and Schroeders (2015) found a positive correlation (p = .57) between self-concept and self-efficacy in science using PISA data. Self-concept was a predictor of future motivation, and self-efficacy predicted current ability.
Wagner et al. (2013) studied self-esteem changes from adolescence to adulthood, finding self-esteem increases, personality and relationships correlate with changes, and gender-specific associations exist between partnership and self-esteem.
O'Mara, Green, and Marsh (2006) conducted a meta-analysis that examined 105 studies and 152 self-concept interventions. Significant results (p < .001) supported a multidimensional perspective of self-concept.
Rieger et al. (2015) focused on the relationship between self-esteem and depression. The study found that depression and self-esteem were not the same construct. The findings support a multidimensional construct regarding self-concept.
Hoy, Tarter, and Hoy (2006) studied the relation between academic optimism and student achievement. The study found that