Lecture Two: Creating Empires - Spanish and French Colonization

The Division of the New World and the Treaty of Tordesillas

• The dominant maritime powers during the era of exploration were Portugal and Spain, both of which were Catholic nations.
• It was believed by these nations that the entirety of the unexplored world would belong exclusively to either Spain or Portugal.
• The Treaty of Tordesillas ($1494$):
  • This treaty established a line of demarcation approximately $1,100$ miles west of the Cape Verde Islands.
  • All undiscovered lands to the west of this line were assigned to Spain.
  • All undiscovered lands to the east of this line were assigned to Portugal.
  • Consequently, Portugal secured Brazil, while Spain claimed the remainder of the Americas.

Spanish Interests and Strategic Bases in the Americas

• Spain's primary focus in the New World was concentrated in Central and South America.
• Florida: This region served as a critical strategic base for the Spanish. The establishment of Saint Augustine in $1565$ was specifically intended to fulfill this strategic need.
• West Indies: Spain maintained colonies in the West Indies to provide naval bases for their fleets.
• Economic Interests: Spanish ships transported treasures looted from the Avtecs and the Incas back to Spain.
• Threats at Sea:
  • Privateers: Legalized pirates commissioned by foreign governments to loot the shipping of rival powers.
  • Pirates: Rogue thieves who acted independently and represented a constant threat to Spanish shipping.

The Protestant Reformation and French Religious Turmoil

• In the $1560s$, France attempted to establish a colony in the Southern United States, driven by religious motives rather than material wealth.
• The Protestant Reformation:
  • Initiated by Martin Luther in $1517$ at Wittenberg, Germany, with the posting of his $95$ theses.
  • This event shattered the unity of the Christian faith, which had previously been split into the Orthodox Church (Constantinople) and the Roman Catholic Church (Rome).
  • The Reformation led to widespread religious wars across Europe between Catholics and Protestants.
• Internal Conflict in France:
  • France experienced a series of internal religious wars during the $1500s$.
  • The conflict pitted the French Calvinists, known as Huguenots, against the Catholic monarchy.
  • In the $1560s$, the French King allowed Huguenots to settle in America, viewing colonization as a more humane alternative to execution.

French Huguenot Colonization Efforts

• Port Royal (South Carolina):
  • Established in $1562$ by a major expedition led by Jean Riveau.
  • The colony was unsuccessful due to a major fire that destroyed supplies, Internal quarreling among settlers, and the failure of additional supplies to arrive.
  • The colony was eventually abandoned.
• Fort Caroline/Port Caroline (Jacksonville, Florida):
  • Established in $1564$ on the St. John's River.
  • Settlers built boats, explored upriver, traded locally, and conducted raids on Spanish settlements in the Caribbean.

Spanish Reaction and the Establishment of St. Augustine

• The Spanish King recognized the strategic threat posed by French settlements and ordered the creation of a defensive post.
• Saint Augustine ($1565$):
  • Founded in response to France's Fort Caroline.
  • Menendez was dispatched with instructions to eliminate the French at Fort Caroline.
  • After receiving reinforcements of $500$ troops, Menendez strengthened his position at Saint Augustine.
  • Menendez's Goals:
    1. Fortify the coast and the shipping route to Mexico.
    2. Locate a Northwest Passage to the Far East.
• The Conflict with Fort Caroline:
  • French forces took half of their garrison to meet the Spanish, leading to back-and-forth fighting.
  • Menendez launched a successful attack on Port Caroline.
  • The event ended in a mass slaughter of the Huguenots, whom Menendez viewed as heretics. Only a few women, children, and converts to Catholicism were spared.
  • Fort Caroline was renamed San Mateo and became a Spanish garrison.

Further Spanish Settlements and Missionary Expansion

• Santa Elena:
  • Established by Menendez on Parris Island, South Carolina.
  • The site is currently used by the Defense Department for training Marines.
  • In $1568$, approximately $300$ farmer settlers and family groups arrived from Spain to settle Santa Elena.
• Missionary Policy ($1577$):
  • Following the failure of the French Huguenot colonies, Spain became the only power with a permanent settlement.
  • In $1577$, Spain officially adopted a policy of asserting authority through missionaries backed by soldiers.
  • Franciscan Friars: These priors were sent to establish missions, including two on the outskirts of Saint Augustine.
• Native Conversion:
  • The Timukins accepted Christianity due to being weakened by smallpox and desiring security through a Spanish alliance (utilizing Spanish firearms).
  • Natives provided labor as tribute and assisted with farming.
  • The Appalachians, centered in Tallahassee, also converted and worked with the Spanish.
  • By a century later, Spain had established three dozen missions across the region.

Life in Spanish Florida

• Castillo De San Marcos (Saint Mark's Castle): A central fortress in Saint Augustine that defended the city against British attacks in the $18th$ century.
• Diplomacy and Governance:
  • Menendez negotiated treaties with Native American groups.
  • Cultural Brokers: Individuals, often of mixed ancestry, bridged the language gap between the Spanish and the natives.
  • Natives were required to swear fealty to King Philip II of Spain and pay labor tribute.
  • The Spanish reciprocated by giving gifts to tribal chiefs.
• Social and Cultural Integration:
  • Spanish oversight was necessary to maintain good relations, as some individual Spaniards were less scrupulous when Menendez was away.
  • Acculturation: The Spanish adopted corn as a staple instead of importing wheat, and they utilized Native American pottery in their kitchens.
  • Ranking Conversion Success: The Spanish had the highest success in converting natives, followed by the French, with the English having the least success.

The French in Canada (New France)

• Context of Delay:
  • Jacques Cartier explored the area early on, but internal instability in France delayed settlement for $100$ years.
  • Religious wars between Catholics and Huguenots peaked with the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre in $1572$.
  • Henry of Navarre (Henry IV) ascended the throne as a Protestant but converted to Catholicism to stabilize the nation, famously noting that "Paris was worth a mass."
• Expansion under Henry IV:
  • In $1603$, Henry IV sent Samuel de Champlain to explore the Saint Lawrence River and Acadia (Nova Scotia).
  • The inhabitants of Acadia would later become the Cajuns of Louisiana.
• Samuel de Champlain:
  • Known as the "Father of New France."
  • Established Port Royal (Nova Scotia) in $1605$. This "New" Port Royal should not be confused with the earlier Huguenot settlement in Carolina.

The Economic Core: The Fur Trade and Quebec

• The fur trade was the foundation of the French economy in North America.
• Furs, particularly for beaver hats, were highly fashionable in Europe.
• Quebec ($1608$):
  • Established as a fortress on high ground for its defensibility and access to the interior for furs.
  • The Assassination Plot: Two locksmiths in Quebec conspired with the Spanish and Basque traders to murder Champlain and take over the fur trade. A soldier warned Champlain; one conspirator confessed, while another was hanged, beheaded, and impaled in Quebec as a warning.
• Champlain’s Personal and Strategic Life:
  • In $1610$, Champlain (in his $40s$) married a rich $12$-year-old named Helene Belay.
  • Aims: Map the continent, find a water route to the Pacific, and convert indigenous people to Christianity.

Native Alliances and Conflicts in New France

• The French relied on alliances due to their small population numbers.
• Primary Allies: The Hurons and Algonquins.
• The Iroquois Confederation (Five Nations):
  • Composed of the Mohawks, Onondaga, Cayugas, and Seneca.
  • They were the most powerful and innovative group, but the French failed to ally with them.
• Battle at Ticonderoga (July $1609$):
  • Champlain and his allies encountered the Iroquois at Crown Point, New York.
  • Using an arquebus, Champlain killed two chiefs with one shot. This established a century-long enmity between the French and the Iroquois.

Missionary and Dependency Policies

• Recollect Friars: A branch of the Franciscans sent by Champlain in $1615$.
• Champlain's Plan for Native Dependency:
  1. Provide French soldiers to fight their wars.
  2. Use French priests to oversee their religion.
  3. Use French traders to supply needs, specifically creating dependency on gunpowder, guns, and rum.
• Cultural Approach: According to historian Francis Hartman, the Spanish and English "crushed" the Indians, while the French "embraced and cherished" them. French missionaries studied native languages before attempting to convert them.

The Late $17th$ Century and Population Growth

• In $1627$ and $1629$, the English conquered Port Royal and Quebec, but they were returned to France via treaty.
• Champlain died in $1635$ due to paralysis.
• Iroquois Dominance:
  • The Iroquois allied with the Dutch (based in Albany, New York), who supplied them with arms and metal tools.
  • The Iroquois attacked the Hurons to gain skins for the European trade.
• Royal Intervention:
  • Louis XIV sent thousands of troops to march against the Iroquois, leading to a peace treaty in $1667$.
• Demographics:
  • In $1666$, the population of New France was $3,000$.
  • Minister Colbert sent young women (around age $13$), known as the "King's Daughters," to marry male settlers.
  • The population increased to $7,000$ within a context of few years.