MEMORY

  • Memory: persistence of learning via encoding, storage, retrieval.

Encoding

  • Process of transforming information into usable forms for memory.

  • Selective Attention: focusing on important stimuli.

Types of Processing

  • Effortful Processing: Requires attention and consciousness.

  • Automatic Processing: Happens unconsciously; processes incidental information.

Levels of Processing

  • More profound encoding leads to better retention.

  • Maintenance Rehearsal: Repetition; less effective retention.

  • Elaborative Rehearsal: Relating new info to existing knowledge; more effective.

Storage

  • Stages: Sensory memory, Short-term/Working memory, Long-term memory.

Sensory Memory

  • Holds information momentarily.

    • Iconic Memory: Visual info lasts <1 second.

    • Echoic Memory: Auditory info lasts 3-4 seconds.

Short-term/Working Memory

  • Limited capacity: 7 (± 2) bits of information.

  • Retention time: approximately 18 seconds.

  • Chunking: organizing info to improve memory retention.

Long-term Memory

  • Practically unlimited capacity and duration.

  • Stored semantically; focuses on general meanings rather than details.

Neisser’s Challenger Study

  • Emotionally charged events lead to vivid memories but may contain inaccuracies.

Retrieval

  • Process of accessing stored information.

  • Often biased; gist stored semantically leads to the filling of missing details.

Common Memory Complaints

  • Names (83%), misplaced items (60%), phone numbers (57%).

Age Comparison of Memory Complaints

  • Younger (18-44) vs Older (45+)

    • Losing things: 56% vs 73%

    • Forgetting major past events: 29% vs 39%

    • Forgetting events just occurred: 21% vs 27%.

Special Types of Memory

  • Odor, Pain, Dreams, Taste, Eidetic (Photographic), Selective Memory, False Memory.

Chunks, Acronyms and Mnemonic Devices

  • Chunks: Organizing information into manageable units (e.g., grouping numbers or letters together) to enhance memory retention.

  • Acronyms: Using the first letters of a series of words to create a new word (e.g., ROYGBIV for the colors of the rainbow).

  • Mnemonic Devices: Techniques that aid in memory recall by associating complex information with simple concepts or phrases.

Effortful and Automatic Processing

  • Effortful Processing: Involves active engagement and conscious effort to encode information, usually requiring attention (e.g., studying for an exam).

  • Automatic Processing: Occurs without conscious thought and typically involves information that is easily processed (e.g., recalling a friend's name).

Encoding, Storage and Retrieval

  • Encoding: The initial process of transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored in memory.

  • Storage: The maintenance of encoded information over time.

  • Retrieval: The process of accessing and bringing stored information into conscious awareness.

Gist of Information

  • Refers to the general meaning or essence of the information rather than the specific details, which can influence how memories are recalled and interpreted.

Maintenance vs Elaborative Rehearsal

  • Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory; less effective for long-term retention.

  • Elaborative Rehearsal: Involves relating new information to existing knowledge, creating associations, which leads to better retention.

Semantic Learning and Storage

  • Semantic Learning: Involves understanding and remembering general meanings, concepts, and ideas rather than exact details, aiding in long-term storage.

  • Storage: Typically encoded semantically, enhancing the likelihood of recall based on understanding rather than rote memorization.

Sensory, Short-term and Long-term Memory

  • Sensory Memory: Briefly holds vast amounts of information from the senses (iconic for visual and echoic for auditory).

  • Short-term Memory: Temporarily holds a limited amount of information (7 ± 2 items) for a short duration (approx. 18 seconds).

  • Long-term Memory: Stores information indefinitely, with a much larger capacity that can last years or even a lifetime.

Storage Capacity

  • Refers to the maximum amount of information that can be stored in various types of memory systems: limited for short-term memory versus practically unlimited for long-term memory.