AP Euro Unit 2-Review
Absolutism in Eastern Europe (Austria, Prussia, Russia, c.1600-1740)
The Three Aging Empires
Holy Roman Empire (HRE): religious division and war between Catholic, Lutheran, and Calvinist princes split Germany
Ottoman Empire: lost eastern Europe & the Balkans to Austria and Russia
thrived during Dark Ages
Suleiman the Magnificent (r.1520-1566): Ottoman equivalent to Louis XIV, very powerful
more religiously tolerant than Western Europe (incorporate talented Christian children into bureaucracy despite being a Muslim empire)
“Janissary corps”: Turkish military corps composed of very loyal Christian slaves who were not selected for Ottoman bureaucracy
failed Battle/Siege of Vienna in 1683 hastens the rapid decline of Ottoman Empire (still relatively powerful though)
Polish Kingdom: inability of the Polish monarchy to consolidate its power over the nobility led to Poland’s partition (between Russia, Austria, and Prussia)
liberum veto - voting in the Polish parliament (sejm) had to be unanimous for changes to be made
nobles want to keep their power so they make parliament ineffective
nothing could be done to systematically strengthen the kingdom
Western (French) Absolutism vs. Eastern (Russian) Absolutism
Western (French) Absolutism | Eastern (Russian) Absolutism |
|---|---|
reduced nobility, powerful middle class (bourgeois nobles of the robe) | powerful nobility, weak middle class, oppressed peasantry (serfdom) |
Crusades (Catholic) → developed trade, Renaissance, Reformation, strong middle class (Calvinists), rely heavily on middle class | no Crusades (Orthodox) → underdeveloped trade, no Renaissance, no Reformation, no strong middle class, rely heavily on nobility |
threat of war with European and Asian invaders serve as motivation to consolidate power | New Monarchs consolidate power |
no serfdom because Black Death resulted in labor shortage (scarcity), thus making labor more valuable and serfs moving into cities for more opportunities | Lords demand kings/princes to issue laws restricting/eliminating peasants’ right to move freely, kings give nobles more control over serfs for their loyalty to the king (weakening noble power), hereditary serfdom re-established |
robot: peasants were required to work 3-4 days without pay per week for local lord | successful peasant revolts during Middle Ages |
The Austrian (Habsburg) Empire
after War of the Spanish Succession (1701-13) and Treaty of Utrecht (1713), Spanish throne is occupied by Bourbons, Habsburg power is concentrated in Austria
consist of Austria proper, Bohemia, Hungary, and other people groups each with different legal relationships to the Emperor
NOT a national state, therefore less unity and more implosions
Magyars were dominant cultural group in Hungary: Calvinist nobles who had wealth and power
Austria’s “problem child”
Habsburgs turn their attention to consolidating their diverse holdings into a strong unified state
Leopold I (r.1658-1705): restrict Protestant worship & successfully repel Turks during Siege of Vienna in 1683
Charles VI (r.1711-1740): only has daughters, issues Pragmatic Sanction in 1713: secures his daughter, Maria Theresa, for the throne by making deals with different groups within the Empire so that Habsburg possessions are completely passed intact to the next ruler
contributes to the independence of these small groups in the Empire b/c they become more autonomous
Prussia
House of Hohenzollern is ruling noble family, elector in HRE (Brandenburg/Prussia)
Frederick William, the “Great Elector” (r.1640-1688): not king (Prussia is not a kingdom yet), prince who lays the foundation of kingdom
Calvinist, but grants religious toleration to Catholics & Jews
ongoing struggles around Prussia creates atmosphere of permanent crisis
establishes Prussia as a Great Power to defend themselves
oversees Prussian militarism, creates most efficient army in Europe (despite being small)
establish bureaucracies
increase tax (including on the nobles)
Junkers (Prussian nobility) form backbone of Prussian military b/c they are educated
gives Junkers compensation through more control over serfs
tolerates skillful foreigners to encourage industry and trade
Frederick I “The Ostentatious” (1688-1713); first “King of Prussia”
imitate court of Louis XIV
encourage higher education
Treaty of Utrecht (1713): for aiding the Habsburgs, the elector of Brandenburg/Prussia is recognized as the “King of Prussia” Frederick William Frederick I
Frederick William I (r.1713-1740) “Soldiers’ King”
develops Prussian absolutism, grows army
infused militarism into all of Prussian society
reorganize society to be more like a military
Prussia became known as “Sparta of the North”
“Prussia, is not a state with an army, but an army with a state. ”
double size of the army (best and 4th largest in Europe)
use army to intimidate others (prevent war)
oversee most efficient bureaucracy (meritocracy) in Europe (military style, absolute obedience and discipline of civil servants)
Junkers remain officers for supporting king’s absolutism
compulsory elementary education (educated citizens = better civil servants)
Frederick II (“Frederick the Great”) (r.1740-1786): most powerful & famous Prussian king
considered an “Enlightened Despot” for important Enlightened reforms (more information on Enlightened Despot section)
Russia
Russia didn’t have a Renaissance or Reformation, very “backward”
behind in trade, religion, military, serfdom, and noble power
Romanov dynasty
Michael Romanov (r.1613-1645): first Romanov tsar who came to power in Muscovy after horrific “Time of Troubles” (civil war)
favor boyars (Russian nobility) in return for their support
expand territories
control religion to control the people
“Old Believers” of the Orthodox Church: resist influx of new religious sects from West
20,000 burned themselves to death over 20 years in protest
severely persecuted by government
Western ideas gain ground
books translated, new skills & tech developed, clothing & customs changed
Peter the Great (r.1682-1725)
similar to Louis XVI and the Fronde, the nobility tried to kill Peter’s family when he was young, resulting in Peter trying to control the nobility in his reign
interested in foreign things, ships, seas (modernize = Westernize)
need for warm water port (trade, navy, exploration) to compete with other powers
similar to Prussia, Peter imported foreigners to Russia if they could teach their skills (Peter traveled to W. Europe in 1698 to learn)
Streltsy uprising (1698): Moscow guards rebel, are crushed by Peter (distrust the nobility)
develop military (25-year enlistments, 75% of national budget)
establish royal, military academies (a well trained corps like Prussia)
compulsory education (to make better servants of state)
establish meritocracy; non-nobles can rise up the ranks
The Great Northern War (1700-1721): Russia vs. Sweden
Treaty of Nystad (1721): Russia gains Latvia & Estonia, gets “Window on the West” in Baltic Sea (warm water ports)
Table of Ranks (1722): set educational standards for civil servants (move up ranks on table to gain more privileges, essentially an incentive to support the tsar)
boyars are managed (not removed)
St. Petersburg
create a city similar to Amsterdam and a palace (the Peterhof) similar to Versailles
like Louis XVI, move capital from Moscow to St. Petersburg to isolate nobility away from mass in Moscow
many noble families ordered to move to city (Peterhof was too small) so that Peter can watch over them (like Versailles Palace)
1711 Senate: direct government while Peter was away with the army (prevent something like Streltsy rebellion) with 9 members (bureaucracy spreads power)
1717 Administrative Colleges (think colleges make up bigger body, i.e. university): several officials (noble and loyal) worked according to written directions
collect taxes, manage war & economic affairs
check power of Senate
1721 Holy Synod: Peter as head with laymen replaces Patriarch
similar to Church of England
Church is conservative force, Peter (liberal force) needed to control religion
Russian peasants still have religion as center of life (like Middle Ages); control Church = control people
Beard tax: Peter shaves beard of court boyars to look more W. European (tax to keep)
son Aleksei was unfavorable of modernization, tortured/condemned to death in 1718
Senate & Church were sympathetic to Aleksei
The Scientific Revolution (c.1500-c.1700)
Medieval view of the world:
religious/theological
Ptolemy, Aristotle, the Bible are primary sources of science
people live religion-centered lives, believe in what the Church tells you (and Monarchs support the Church)
peasants less educated, use superstitions to reason science
geocentric model: earth is center of static/motionless universe
science is branch of theology
universities teach subjects w/ theology
Renaissance stimulate science by rediscovering ancient math (rationalism, secularism, individualism)
navigational problems motivate scientific advances (mostly astronomy)
England is center of scientific activity (advance military & trade)
more willing to progress b/c of liberal constitutional monarchy
Scientific Revolution brings about new world view
find natural laws that govern the universe
happens during Reformation, Churches become defensive
Astronomy in the 16th Century
Nicolaus Copernicus’ (1473-1543): On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres (1543)
natural philosopher (no equipment), dedicate book to pope as to not challenge Church doctrine
Heliocentric view: earth revolve around Sun, sun was center of universe
stars did not move (earth’s rotation makes it look like stars move)
major anomaly: epicycles explain retrograde motion
challenge Ptolemy’s geocentric universe
challenge Bible’s geocentric view in Genesis
if the Church was wrong here, where else could there be errors?
Protestants condemn Copernicus, point out Bible passages (Bible is sole authority)
by 1616 (after Copernicus’ death) Catholic Church proclaim Copernican theory as heretical, bans book
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601): build best observatory in Europe and collected massive data about observations on universe for decades
data later proved Copernican theory, but Brahe himself didn’t accept
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630): Brahe’s assistant, first great Protestant scientist
mathematically proved Copernican theory
develop three laws of planetary motion
Astronomy in the 17th Century
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642): develop the laws of motion
experimental method
gravity & law of inertia
Newton proves these mathematically
validate Copernican heliocentric view with telescope
first to use telescope as scientific instrument, built one himself
discovered 4 moons of Jupiter (name after Medicis, patron)
controversial in Catholic countries
supported in Protestant countries (question Catholic doctrine)
Protestants can accept Galileo b/c they are relatively new compared to the Catholic’s +1500 years of history
Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632): geocentrism vs heliocentrism
in 1633 the pope forces Galileo to retract support of Copernican theory, remains under house arrest for rest of life but not killed (killing can make him more popular)
Isaac Newton (1642-1727): incorporates Copernican and Keplerian astronomy with Galilean physics into broad theory explaining order & design to the universe
provides the “why” to previous scientists/natural philosophers
Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy or Principia (1687): details the Principle of universal gravitation
natural laws of motion (gravitation) are evident in movement of heavenly bodies and earthly objects
develop mathematical principles to explain motion
every body in the universe attracts every other body in precise mathematical relationship
since these natural laws are unchangeable & predictable, God’s active participation in the natural world (divine intervention) is not needed to explain the forces of nature
foundation of Enlightenment view of God: deism
divine watchmaker: God creates the universe, let it run via natural laws & doesn’t intervene with it
Newton was last of Sci. Rev. → beginning of Enlightenment
Enlightenment sought to apply natural law to people
The Scientific Method
formalize approach to scientific experimentation
Francis Bacon (1561-1626): formalize empiricism (already used by Brahe & Galileo)
Inductive method: begin with inductive observation, form hypothesis, conduct experiments, organize data
Bacon’s inductive method + Descartes’ deductive reasoning form backbone of modern scientific method
René Descartes (1596-1650): Discourse on Method advocated use of deductive reasoning (logic alone)
use deductive reasoning to prove his existence: “cogito ergo sum” (“I think; therefore, I am”)
start with clear/incontrovertible facts, subdivide each problem into many parts, use step-by-step logical sequence
relate algebra & geometry, develop analytical geometry
Cartesian Dualism divide all existence into spiritual & material
spiritual can only be examined through deductive reasoning
material is subject to experimental method
Anatomy, Physiology, and Biology
2nd century Roman physician Galen:
4 humors (blood, phlegm, black bile, yellow bile)
bloodletting
“thinking” science, not “doing” science (no dissections)
Paracelsus (1493-1541): father of modern pharmaceuticals
experiment with use of various chemicals and drugs to deal with medical issues (chemical imbalances, not humoral)
Vesalius (1516-1564): The Structure of the Human Body (1543)
renew & modernize study of human anatomy
include about 200 detailed drawings of human body
revolutionize understanding of human body
dissect cadavers & assemble first human skeletons
William Harvey (1578-1657): On the Movement of the Heart and Blood (1628)
explain how blood was pumped by the heart & circulated throughout the body via veins and arteries (not the liver)
Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723): father of microscopy
develop powerful microscopes, see & write about bacteria, yeast plants, living organisms in drop of water, circulation of blood corpuscles in capillaries
Impact of the Sci. Rev. on Society
government encourage science to improve economy, trade, military, navigation, etc.
scientific societies create means for scientists to communicate with each other
Royal Society in England was most successful & prestigious
England was open & progressive (constitutional monarchy)
other royal societies were created to compete with each other
leads directly to the Enlightenment
science could be used for improved agriculture (Agricultural Revolution)
reduce support for which hunts (discredit superstition)
science and religion were not in conflict until 19th & 20th centuries
scientists were still religious
after Catholic Counter Reformation, Church became more hostile to science
Protestant countries become leaders of scientific revolution (England)
Alchemy & Astrology
“magic” continues to appeal to elites (wealthier classes) & some natural philosophers
Alchemy was medieval forerunner of modern chemistry (supposed transformation of matter: base metals → gold or finding universal elixir that would restore youth)
alchemy was an accepted field of study
Paracelsus mixed magic & valid science in ways that defied modern science
Brahe & Kepler believed in alchemy
Isaac Newton believed principles of alchemy as he devised his theory of universal gravitational
Astrology was used to see how stars affected people’s lives
Queen Elizabeth of England paid astrologers to forecast future
Brahe was court astrologer in Denmark
Kepler was astrologer to Austrian Habsburgs
Galileo provided horoscopes to the Medici
astrology decline during and after Enlightenment
education brings decline in magic
The Enlightenment (c.1600-c.1800)
Enlightened Despotism (c.1740-1815)
NOT RENAISSANCE but similar ideas
rationalism, secularism, individualism, education
Renaissance was more liberal arts, Enlightenment was more natural laws
first secular worldview that natural science & reason could explain life
faith in human reason rather than faith in revelation
to bring change, humans must take action, not God
man is agent of change, no divine intervention
Deism: God created the universe and then stepped back and left it running (like a clock)
universe is governed by “natural law,” not a personal God
originate from Newton’s theories regarding natural law
the principles of the Sci. Rev. were applied to human society and institutions
take Sci. Rev. & natural laws to apply it on people to predict what kind of gov’t, economy, etc. people would need
progress occurs when things are aligned with natural laws
promote progress, education, tolerance, reason, happiness
John Locke (1632-1704)
greatest of Enlightenment thinkers; predict ideal form of government for people
Two Treatises of Civil Government (1690)
philosophical defense of Glorious Revolution: England changed from absolutist to constitutional without bloodshed, so Locke’s outlook on human nature is positive
state of nature: humans are basically good but lack protection (unlike Hobbes, who lived thru English Civil War)
consent of the governed: only way gov’ts provide rule of law
people are born with “natural rights”: life, liberty, and property
social contract: people obey gov’t, gov’t protects natural rights
natural rights give right to rebellion: people have right to abolish gov’t that doesn’t protect natural rights
Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)
stressed importance of the environment on human development
tabula rasa: human mind was born as blank slate
humans are a reflection of the environment without preconceived notions
change environment to change people (education)
challenge Christian view that humans are essentially sinful
Religious Toleration
popularized by many scholars who made Enlightenment accessible to public
reason → more tolerance
stress idea of progress
question claims of organized religion
man-made organizations/rules control lives of followers
Catholicism & Judaism are older religions, are against change (conservative force)
Pierre Bayle (1647-1706): Critical and Historical Dictionary (1697)
advocate for complete toleration of ideas
was a skeptic who believed nothing could be known beyond all doubt
major criticism concerned Christian authorities
The Philosophes
French Enlightened philosophers committed to incorporate Enlightened ideals into society to make progress
extremely successful in popularizing Enlightenment (by 1775 most elite embraced Enlightenment)
Voltaire (1694-1778): most influential Enlightenment thinker (very sarcastic writing)
challenge traditional Catholic theology
believe human reason was key to societal progress, not faith
despise Catholic Church for not being Jesus-like
“Ecrasez l’infame” (“crush the infamous thing”): crush religious authorities (organized religion), religious intolerance
advocate “enlightened despotism” (despot = absolutist), people were incapable of governing themselves
believe in equality before the law but not equality of classes (law is equal for all people)
Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755): call for separation of powers in gov’t into 3 branches (monarchy, nobility, rest of population)
Spirit of the Laws (1748)
prevent tyranny, promote liberty (checks & balances)
favor constitutional monarchy England
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
Social Contract (1762): too much emphasis on property, not enough for people → social injustice
general will: consensus of majority that should control a nation (democracy)
founder of Romantic movement (less reason, more emotion)
state of nature: man is good, but society/civilization turns him into a “noble savage” (man is chained to society b/c he must live communally)
Emile (1762): support progressive education for children
separate spheres:
men: public sphere (work, education)
women: domestic sphere (at home, no education)
Denis Diderot (1713-1784): The Encyclopedia (completed 1765)
organize all Enlightened writing by topic, popularize views of philosophes
emphasize science & reason, criticize religion, intolerance, injustice, tyranny
banned in France, placed on Index of Forbidden Books
Marquis de Beccaria (1738-1794): On Crimes and Punishment (1764)
humanize criminal law based on Enlightened concepts
punishment should depend on severity of the damage done to society (not religious sin)
oppose death penalty (except serious threats against state) & torture
Economic Theory in the Enlightenment
Mercantilist theory and practice were challenged by new economic ideas embracing free trade and a free market
Francois Quesnay (1694-1774)
lead physiocrats (French economists) who oppose mercantilism
laissez-faire: no gov’t intervention in the economy (gov’t hands off, essentially capitalism)
Adam Smith (1727-1790): Wealth of Nations (1776)
“Bible” of capitalism
refine/expand laissez-faire philosophy
economy is governed by natural laws of supply and demand (Enlightened)
in free market economy, competition encourage producers to manufacture most efficiently to sell higher quality, lower cost goods than competitors
“invisible hand of the marketplace”: laws of supply and demand will dictate price at which society benefits the most
businesses sell, consumers buy; they do things for their best interest
people know what people want, not the gov’t
economy moves forward (progress) b/c gov’t doesn’t interfere
Women in the Enlightenment
major role in salon movement
Enlightened minds gather in salons (coffeehouses, academies, lending libraries, Masonic lodges) to discuss major issues of the day
women learned by hosting thinkers and listening
Madame Geoffrin patronize the Encyclopedia
Madame de Staël bring German romantic ideas into France
intellectuals such as Rousseau offered new arguments for the exclusion of women from political life, although these views did not go unchallenged
biology makes men & women different; men could live w/o women, women could not
Montesquieu’s Persian Letters (1721): support increased rights for women
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797): Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792): attack Rousseau’s views regarding education
Olympe de Gouges (1748-1793): Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen (1791): demand French women be given the same rights as French men during early years of French Revolution (slide 48)
Later Enlightenment (late 18th century)
more skeptical and atheistic, continue to demand religious toleration
Baron Paul d’Holbach (1723-1789): System of Nature (1770)
humans are like machines, determined by outside forces (determinism)
contradict deism, reason (machines don’t have reason)
David Hume (1711-1776): argue against faith in both natural law & religion
desire (not reason) governed human reason
human ideas are result of sensory experiences; reason could not go beyond what was experienced thru senses
Marquis de Condorcet (1743-1794): Progress of the Human Mind (1795)
9 stages of human progress already occurred, predict 10th stage would bring perfection (discrete, limited progress)
religion was viewed increasingly as a private rather than public concern
by 1800 most governments had extended toleration to Christian minorities, and in some states, civil equality to Jews
Classical Liberalism
political outgrowth of the Enlightenment
liberty of individual and equality before the law (but not democracy)
“natural rights” philosophy impact American & French Revolutions
Locke & Montesquieu evident in American Constitution & French Declaration of the Rights of Man
Rousseau’s “general will” influence French Revolution after 1791
laissez-faire capitalism (Adam Smith)
no gov’t interference in economy
capitalism (wealth for individual) is opposite of mercantilism (wealth for state)
progress (through reason & education), human dignity, happiness
religious toleration, freedom of speech/press, just punishments for crimes, equal treatment before the law
Impact of the Enlightenment on Society
Emergence of a secular world view of the universe (for the first time in Western history)
Enlightened despotism in Prussia, Russia, Austria, and France (Napoleon)
American and French Revolutions (as a a result of classical liberalism)
Education reform in various countries
Growth of laissez faire capitalism in the 19th century during the early industrial revolution in England and in 19th-century America
New public venues and print media emerged
Enlightened Despotism (c.1740-1815)
in the 18th century, a number of states in eastern and central Europe experimented with enlightened absolutism
philosophes inspired/supported reforms of Enlightened Despots
absolutists should promote good of the people
religious toleration, legal codes, increased access to education, reduction/elimination of torture & death penalty
For the next few slides:
Enlightened actions promote tolerance, equality before the law, education, happiness, etc.
Moderate Enlightened actions somewhat promote tolerance, equality before the law, education, happiness, etc.
Not Enlightened actions does not promote tolerance, equality before the law, education, happiness, etc.
Frederick the Great (r.1740-1786)
Prussian militarism (from father) + Enlightenment
Wars of Frederick the Great
War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748)
Frederick invades & annexes Silesia (part of Austrian Empire)
violates Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 (slide 5)
Prussia defeats Austria, signs Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle:
Prussia gains Silesia (natural resources & population boost), becomes “Great Power”
Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)
Maria Theresa tries to regain Silesia, ally with France and Russia
“Diplomatic Revolution of 1756”: France & Austria (traditional enemies) ally against Prussia (Russia allies with France/Austria)
Britain (traditional Russian ally) support Prussia with money, Prussia is better check on French power than Austria (and English monarch was Hanoverian)
bloodiest war in Europe since 30 Years’ War, Prussia was on verge of defeat
Russian Tsar Peter III (admirer of Frederick) pull out in 1763
Treaty of Paris (1763): most important treaty since Treaty of Westphalia
Prussia permanently retains Silesia
France lose all North American colonies to Britain
Enlightened reforms (most were results of war failures to distract people):
claim himself “first servant of the state”
allow religious freedom (but less to Jews)
promote education in schools & universities (but gains in primary education was modest)
codify & streamline laws (equality before the law)
numerous laws in provinces simplified into unified national code of law
judicial system becomes efficient & impartial
free serfs only on crown lands (to pull into the military)
improve state bureaucracy by establishing meritocracy
reduce censorship
abolish capital punishment (but not in army)
encourage immigration, industrial, and agricultural growth (strong economy improves lives)
Junkers are backbone of military & state, social structure remains stratified
no strong middle class, increase status to nobles
Catherine the Great (r.1762-1796)
least Enlightened
German princess who became Queen after husband Peter III is assassinated during 7 Years’ War for pulling out Prussia (she took part of the assassination)
lover of French culture, patron of the Enlightenment
Pugachev Rebellion (1773): Eugene Pugachev, Cossack soldier, leads huge serf uprising (claimed to be Peter III)
demand end to serfdom, taxes → murder landlords & officials
Pugachev was captured & executed
Catherine gave nobility absolute control over serfs (reliance on nobility)
import Western culture into Russia (architects, artists, musicians, writers)
reform education for noble girls
restrict practice of torture
allow limited degree of religious toleration
stop persecution of Old Believers
Jews granted civil equality (Russians are very anti-semitic)
allow strengthened local gov’ts led by elective councils of nobles (but crown was not obligated to accept recommendations)
annex Polish territory under 3 partitions with Prussia & Austria
Maria Theresa (r.1740-1780)
came into power via Pragmatic Sanction, 1713 (slide 5)
NOT an Enlightened despot, NOT motivated by Enlightened ideals
as a women viewed as weak, she needed to centralize power for herself which consequently improved people’s lives through absolute rule
limit power of nobles (reduce power over serfs, improve serfs’ lives greatly)
increase standing army
improve tax system
reduce torture
bring Catholic Church under state control
promote economic development
abolish guilds, internal customs duties
give serfs some freedoms to make them more productive
improve transportation
support private enterprise
no religious toleration, except some for Protestants
Joseph II (r.1780-1790)
ruled with mother (Maria Theresa) as co-regent until her death in 1780
most Enlightened, least successive (too progressive)
use absolutism to be ruthless in achieving goals
abolish serfdom & feudal dues in 1781
ironically, opposed by many peasants
before: pay lords with labor
after: pay lords with cash (not labor) but they don’t have cash
nobles resist reduction of power
freedom of religion & civic rights to Protestants & Jews
allow freedom of press to significant degree
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To effectively contextualize an LEQ prompt related to Absolutism in Eastern Europe and the Scientific Revolution/Enlightenment, you can draw upon several key elements from earlier units:
The Renaissance: The Renaissance emphasized humanism, individualism, and a rediscovery of classical knowledge. This intellectual movement laid the groundwork for the Scientific Revolution by fostering a spirit of inquiry and a focus on human capabilities, which can be contrasted with the more theologically driven medieval worldview.
The Reformation: The Reformation challenged the religious authority of the Catholic Church, leading to religious fragmentation and conflict. This can be connected to the rise of absolutism, as rulers sought to consolidate power in response to religious divisions. Additionally, the Reformation's emphasis on individual interpretation of the Bible relates to the Enlightenment's focus on individual reason and questioning traditional authority.
The Age of Exploration: The Age of Exploration spurred scientific advancements in navigation and cartography. This era of discovery also led to increased global interactions and a greater awareness of different cultures, which influenced Enlightenment thinkers' views on human nature and society.
The Commercial Revolution: The Commercial Revolution resulted in the growth of trade, the rise of a merchant class, and the development of new economic systems. This can be linked to absolutism, as monarchs sought to control and benefit from economic expansion. Furthermore, the economic theories of mercantilism and the subsequent challenge by laissez-faire economics during
Here are sample LEQ, SAQ, and DBQ prompts based on the unit 'Absolutism in Eastern Europe and the Scientific Revolution/Enlightenment':
LEQ (Long Essay Question):
Evaluate the extent to which the Enlightenment influenced political and social reforms in Eastern Europe during the period 1740-1815.
Compare and contrast the methods used by Peter the Great of Russia and Frederick the Great of Prussia to consolidate absolute power. Analyze the degree to which their policies were influenced by Enlightenment ideals.
Analyze the relationship between the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment. How did the Scientific Revolution pave the way for Enlightenment ideals and what were the key continuities and changes between these two movements?
SAQ (Short Answer Question):
Explain one way in which the Scientific Revolution challenged traditional sources of authority.
Describe one similarity and one difference between Western Absolutism (e.g., France) and Eastern Absolutism (e.g., Russia).
Explain how the concept of 'natural rights,' as articulated by John Locke, challenged the existing political order in Europe.
DBQ (Document-Based Question):
Analyze various factors that contributed to the rise of absolutism in Eastern Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. (Documents could include excerpts from royal decrees, writings by nobles, accounts of peasant life, and opinions of foreign observers.)
To what extent did Enlightenment ideals impact social and political life in Europe? (Documents could include excerpts from writings by Locke, Voltaire, Rousseau, and other Enlightenment thinkers,
c. 1600-1740: Absolutism in Eastern Europe
(Political) Challenges to Empires: The Holy Roman Empire, Ottoman Empire, and Polish Kingdom faced significant challenges to their power and stability.
(Political) Austrian Empire: The Habsburgs consolidated power and territories.
(Political/Military) Prussia's Rise: Under the Hohenzollern dynasty, Prussia emerged with distinct militaristic reforms.
(Political) Russia's Expansion: The Romanovs focused on territorial growth and centralized control.
c. 1500-c. 1700: Scientific Revolution
(Intellectual) Shift in Perspective: Transition from a medieval worldview to one emphasizing natural laws.
(Scientific) Astronomical Transformations: Key figures like Copernicus, Brahe, Kepler, and Galileo revolutionized our understanding of the cosmos.
(Scientific) Formalized Scientific Method: Bacon and Descartes established structured approaches to scientific inquiry.
(Scientific) Scientific Advancements: Significant progress occurred in anatomy, physiology, and biology.
(Social) Societal Impact: Governments supported science, paving the way for the Enlightenment.
c. 1600-c. 1800: The Enlightenment
(Intellectual) Emergence of Secular Thought: Reason and natural law became central.
(Political) Influence of Locke: His concepts of natural rights shaped political thought.
(Social) Promotion of Toleration: Thinkers advocated for religious acceptance.
(Intellectual) Impact of Philosophes: Intellectuals championed enlightened ideals.
(Economic) Economic Changes: Laissez-faire economics gained traction.
(Social) Role of Women: Women challenged norms in salons.
Late 18th Century: Later Enlightenment
(Intellectual) Rise of Skepticism: Skepticism and atheism grew.
Classical Liberalism
(Political) Political Transformation: Emphasized liberty and equality before the law.
(Political) Influence on Revolutions: Influenced the American and French Revolutions.
c. 1740-1815: Enlightened Despotism
(Political) Implementation of Reforms: States experimented with enlightened absolutism.
(Political/Military) Frederick the Great combines Prussian militarism with Enlightenment ideals.