Human Growth and Development Notes

Human Growth and Development PSY 2440

Chapters 1 & 2 Overview

  • Instructor: Andrew Cummings, Ph.D.

  • Topics include:

    • History

    • Theory

    • Research Strategies

Understanding How and Why (Part 1)

  • The science of human development seeks to understand how and why people of all ages and circumstances change or remain the same over time.

Understanding How and Why (Part 2)

  • Scientific Method: A way to answer questions using empirical research and data-based conclusions.

    • Five Basic Steps of the Scientific Method:

    1. Begin with curiosity and pose a question.

    2. Develop a hypothesis.

    3. Test the hypothesis.

    4. Analyze data and draw conclusions.

    5. Report the results.

Understanding How and Why (Part 3)

  • Replication: The repeat of a study, usually using different participants, potentially of another age, socioeconomic status (SES), or culture.

    • The scientific method is not foolproof due to:

    • Quick conclusions.

    • Misinterpreted data.

    • Ignored alternative perspectives.

    • Data falsification.

    • Variability among human subjects and cultures.

Domains of Development

  1. Physical Development - Changes in:

    • Appearance and functioning of the body and brain.

    • Perceptual and motor development.

    • Physical health.

  2. Cognitive Development - Changes in:

    • Intellectual abilities including attention, memory, academic knowledge, problem solving, imagination, creativity, and language.

  3. Emotional and Social Development - Changes in:

    • Emotional communication, self-understanding, interpersonal skills, friendships, intimate relationships, and moral reasoning.

Periods of Development

  1. Prenatal Period - Conception to birth.

  2. Infancy & Toddlerhood - Birth to 2 years.

  3. Early Childhood - 2 to 6 years.

  4. Middle Childhood - 6 to 11 years.

  5. Adolescence - 11 to 18 years.

  6. Early Adulthood - 18 to 40 years.

  7. Middle Adulthood - 40 to 65 years.

  8. Late Adulthood - 65 years and older.

Questions in Developmental Psychology

  1. What changes?

    • Task: Describe changes within one or several areas of development.

  2. How do these changes affect other aspects of development?

    • Task: Describe changes in relation to other aspects of development within or among domains.

  3. How do these changes occur?

    • Task: Explain the course of development that has been described or observed.

Issues in Developmental Psychology

  1. Continuous vs. Discontinuous Development:

    • Continuous = quantitative, gradual change.

    • Discontinuous = qualitative changes with rapid transformations followed by plateaus.

  2. One Course of Development or Many?

    • One course = universality of change (stage theories).

    • Many courses = importance of context.

  3. Greater Influence of Nature or Nurture?

    • Nature = heredity/genetics.

    • Nurture = environment.

  4. Stability vs. Change:

    • Assessing the importance of early experiences versus the importance of ongoing experiences in development.

Stage Theories of Development

  • Continuous development: Growth happens gradually.

  • Discontinuous development: Defined stages of growth.

History of Developmental Psychology

  • Charles Darwin (Mid-19th Century): Observations on parallels between child growth and human evolution.

  • Normative Study (Early 1900s) - G. Stanley Hall & Arnold Gesell:

    • Measures taken on large numbers to represent typical development.

    • Focused on age-related averages.

  • Mental Testing Movement - Alfred Binet:

    • Identified children with learning difficulties for special placement.

Mid-20th Century Theories

  • Psychoanalytic Perspective: Focus on conflict between biological drives and social expectations.

    • Sigmund Freud:

    • Psychosexual Theory:

      • Strengths: Emphasized importance of early experience and family relationships.

      • Weaknesses: Overemphasis on sexuality, limited research sample, and study concluded development by adolescence.

    • Erik Erikson:

    • Psychosocial Theory: Focus on personality and societal contribution through stages.

      • Strengths: Lifespan development recognition, cultural awareness.

      • Weaknesses: Vagueness of ideas limits testability.

Erikson's Stage Theory

  • Stages Include:

    1. Trust vs. Mistrust (First year)

    2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Second and third years)

    3. Initiative vs. Guilt (Fourth through sixth years)

    4. Industry vs. Inferiority (Age 6 through puberty)

    5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence)

    6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Early adulthood)

    7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle adulthood)

    8. Integrity vs. Despair (Late adulthood)

    • Questions addressed include predictability and support, personal competence, value in life contributions, and fulfillment.

Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory

  • B.F. Skinner: Operant Conditioning

    • Behaviors are affected by reinforcers and punishments.

  • Albert Bandura: Modeling/Imitation.

    • Focus on observational learning.

  • Strengths: Contributed to learning theories; helpful in behavior management.

  • Weaknesses: Neglected children's active role in development and limited consideration of broader environmental influences.

Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory

  • Proposed that children construct knowledge through interaction.

  • Key Concepts:

    • Adaptation and Equilibrium.

  • Four Stages of Cognitive Development:

    1. Sensorimotor (Birth to 2 years):

    • Infants using senses and motor abilities. Learn object permanence.

    1. Preoperational (2 to 6 years):

    • Symbolic thinking; egocentrism prevails.

    1. Concrete Operational (6 to 11 years):

    • Logic applied but limited to direct experiences.

    1. Formal Operational (12 years through adulthood):

    • Abstract and hypothetical reasoning.

  • Strengths: Recognized children’s active role and inspired extensive research.

  • Weaknesses: Underestimated capabilities of infants and preschoolers; task performance could be improved through training.

Recent Theoretical Perspectives

  1. Information Processing Theory:

    • Focuses on symbol manipulation as information flows, studying cognitive functions such as memory and problem-solving.

    • Strength: Detailed approach to understanding learning difficulties.

    • Weaknesses: Lacks comprehensive theory.

  2. Ethology/Evolutionary Psychology:

    • Focus on behavior's adaptive value and competency changes.

    • Strength: Considers organism-environment interactions.

    • Weakness: Difficulty proving behavior as adaptation.

  3. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory:

    • Emphasizes culture and social interactions on cognitive growth.

    • Strength: Acknowledges social factors in development.

    • Weakness: Neglectful of the child's own contributions.

  4. Bio-Ecological Systems Theory:

    • Describes development within complex relationships.

    • Strength: Incorporates environmental levels.

    • Weakness: Complexity of multi-level analysis.

  5. Lifespan Perspective: (Dynamic Systems Theory)

    • Views development as an integrated system across lifespan.

    • Key principles: Development is lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, and influenced by various forces.

Studying Development: Research Strategies

Limitations in Studying Infants and Children

  • Motor and Visual Limitations.

  • Language Limitations: Pre-verbal challenges and cognitive limitations.

  • Attention Span Variability.

  • Parental Influence: Interaction, consent issues.

Developmental Methods

  1. Systematic Observations:

    • Naturalistic Observations: Useful in a child’s environment; starting base for learning.

    • Structured Observations: Ensures equal opportunity to display behaviors, but lacks explanatory depth.

  2. Self-Reports/Interviews:

    • Clinical Interviews: Flexible, allows for expression but accuracy concerns.

    • Structured Interviews: Same questions for comparison, but depth of info may be limited.

  3. Clinical/Case Study Method:

    • In-depth analysis but may not generalize.

  4. Ethnography:

    • Cultural group studies; bias minimization required.

Research Designs

  1. Correlational Designs: Analyzes relationships between variables without manipulation.

  2. Experimental Designs: Investigates effects of manipulations (independent variable) on measures (dependent variable).

    • Field Experiments: Natural settings for treatments.

    • Natural Experiments: Existing treatments among groups.

Developmental Research Designs

  • Longitudinal Design: Observations over extended periods.

  • Cross-Sectional Designs: Comparisons of different individuals at a single time point.

Ethics in Research with Children

  • Protection from physical/psychological harm.

  • Informed consent.

  • Privacy.

  • Knowledge of results.

  • Ensuring beneficial treatments.