Ancient China

 Title: Traditions and Encounters by Bentley 

  1. Political Organization in Early China

    1. Villages & towns flourished through the Yellow & Yangzi River

    2. By third millennium BCE, larger regional states started to emerge

    3. Dynasties: Xia, Shang, & Zhou

      1. Laid political foundations

    1. Early Agricultural Society and the Xia Dynasty

      1. The Yellow River

        1. Unpredictable river

        2. Rises in mountains bordering the high plateau of Tibet

        3. 4,700 kilometers (2,920 miles) before going into the Yellow Sea

        4. Huang He: Yellow River

        5. Picks up light-colored loess soil along its route

          1. Loess: Very fine powderlike soil 

            1. Deposited on plains of northern China and other parts of the world

            2. Easy to work with and is very fertile

          2. Loess turned the river yellow

        6. Sometimes unleashes a huge flood that crushes fields, communities, and anything in its way

        7. Decent amount of rainfall for crops, no need to build complex irrigation systems like Mesopotamia

      2. Yangshao Society and Banpo Village

        1. Supported development of several neolithic societies after 5000 BCE

        2. Flourished from 5000-3000 BCE in middle region

        3. Banpo had many pottery and tools found and used in 6th and 5th millennia BCE

        4. Human population increases while settlements like Banpo cropped up a lot of China

        5. Village-level organization was used for local affairs but did almost nothing to prevent or resolve conflicts between villages

          1. Only had interest in large projects and interest of a larger community compared to smaller communities 

        6. Qin and Han dynasties brought Chinaunified rule in 3rd century BCE

        7. Xia, Shang,, & Zhou were hereditary states that extend control over larger regions

        8. Historians think Xia & Shang dynasties are mythical fantasies

          1. Later they figured out Shang & Xia were actually historical dynasties than fantasies

      3. The Xia Dynasty

        1. Made one of the first efforts to organize public life on a  large scale

        2. More vigorous states at its time

        3. 2200 BCE is when it approximately started

        4. Same region as Yangshao society

        5. Established precedent for hereditary monarchical rule in China

        6. Credit to dynasty founder Sage-king Yu with organization of effective flood-control projects

        7. Maybe exercised power throughout middle of Yellow River valley 

          1. Controlled leaders of individual villages

        8. Dynasty encouraged founding cities and development of metallurgy

          1. Ruling classes needed administrative centers & bronze weapons to maintain control

        9. Erlitou (near Luoyang) might have been capital of Xia dynasty

          1. Had large palace-type structure, modest houses, pottery, workshops, & bronze foundry

    2. The Shang Dynasty

      1. Xia king was oppressive despot who lost his realm to founder of Shang dynasty

      2. Xia state didn’t entirely collapse when giving way before Shang dynasty

      3. Lasted between 1766-1122 BCE 

      4. Left written records & artifacts

      1. Bronze Metallurgy and Horse-Drawn Chariots

        1. Transformed Chinese society

          1. Also displaced Xia dynasty

        2. Other technologies traveled to China & India with early Indo-European migrants that made their way to Tarim Basin (Xinjiang province of western China) 

        3. Bronze metallurgy reached China before Shang dynasty

          1. Xia dynasty made limited use of it

          2. Shang dynasty managed to monopolize it

            1. Had bronze axes, spears, knives, & arrowheads

            2. Strengthen forces and more stone, wood, & bone weapons

            3. Made fittings for horse-drawn chariots

              1. Appeared around  1500-1200 BCE

              2. Were used for battle

          3. Didn’t have the best agriculture villages & extending their influence of Yellow River valley

          4. Extended rules to large portion of northeastern China (modern day Henan)

            1. Kings claimed a log of surplus agricultural production from regions they controlled

              1. Used for military forces, political allies, & other who can help rule

          5. Shang rulers had many military forces

            1. Around armies of 3000, 5000, 10000, 13000, & 30000

            2. Suggested that rulers had powerful military machine

      2. Shang Political Organization

        1. Shang rulers relied on large corps of political allies

        2. Didn’t rule highly centralized state

        3. Kings ruled one thousand or more towns

        4. Others who shared agricultural surplus included advisors, ministers craftsmen, & metalsmiths who helped Shang rulers spread influence

        5. Shang capital moved 6 times during course of dynasty

          1. Capital was a important socialism economics, & cultural center

          2. Also had administration and military there

          3. Had bronze foundries, arts, crafts, trade, & religious observances

      3. The Shang Capital at Ao

        1. One of the earliest capitals of Shang

          1. Near modern Zhengzhou

        2. City wall stood 10 meters (33 feet) high with base of 20 meters (66 feet) thick

          1. Made from soil pack tightly between wooden forms then pounded with mallets until very hard

          2. Is very durable, some remains still are standing (about 3-4 meters tall (10-13 feet)

          3. Required 10,000 laborers working almost 20 years

      4. The Shang Capital at Yin

        1. Near modern Anyang

        2. Was capital during last 2-3 centuries of Shang dynasty

        3. Found complex of royal palaces, documents, some neighborhoods, 2 large bronze foundries, workshops used by potters, woodworkers, bone carver, other craftsmen, & some burial grounds

        4. 11 large, lavish tombs were found for Shang kings with other more modest tombs

          1. Attracted grave robbers after construction

          2. Showed kings had high respect

          3. Graves included many objects, chariots, weapons, bronze goods, pottery, carvings (jade & ivory) cowry shells (served as money & exotic ornamentation), & sacrificial victims (dogs, horses, & scores of humans)

      5. The Tomb of Lady Fu Hao

        1. 1 of 64 wives of Shang king Wu Ding

          1. Ruled the 13th century BCE

        2. Only tomb at Yin to escape notice of grave robbers

          1. Possibly because of location, was in Shang palace than cemetery

        3. Buried about 1250 BCE

        4. Undisturbed for over 3,000 years until found by archaeologists in 1976

        5. Contained 468 bronze objects, 130 weapons, 23 bells, 4 mirrors, 755 jade carvings, 564 bone carvings, 5 carved ivory cups, 11 pottery objects, 6,900 cowry shells, & remains of 6 dogs & 16 humans

          1. Bronze weighed about 1,600 kilograms (3,500 pounds)

            1. Bronze was super expensive in that age & rare

      6. Beyond the Yellow River Valley

        1. Xia & Shang dynasties were paid attention to because of location in Yellow River valley

        2. Sanxingdui (modern day Sichuan province southwestern China)

          1. 1700-1000 BCE

          2. Roughly contemporaneous with SHang dynasty

          3. Probably served as capital of regional kingdom

          4. Tombs there had many bronze, jade, stone, cowry shells, elephant tusks, & pottery objects

          5. Shows close relationships with valleys of both Yangzi River & Yellow River

    3. The Zhou Dynasty

      1. Did not promulgate law codes like Mesopotaimia did but ruled by proclamation/decree

        1. Trusted military forces & political allies to enforce their will

      2. Near Wei River valley of northwestern China (modern Shaanxi province)

      3. Zhou were touch & sinewy people

        1. Battled Shang forces in east & nomadic raiders from steppes in the west

      4. Gradually eclipsed Shang dynasty and displaces it altogether

      1. Rise of the Zhou

        1. Shang & Zhou collide late 12th century BCE

        2. Zhou accounts say the last Shang king was a criminal fool who gave himself over to wine, women, tyranny, & greed

          1. Result was many towns & political districts with Shang transferred loyalties to the Zhou

        3. Several unsuccessful attempts to discipline the Shang king, Zhou forces seized Shang capital of Yin & beheaded king

          1. Administration was replaced in 1122 BCE

          2. New rulers allowed SHang heirs to continue governing small districts but they can still oversee affairs 

        4. Ruled most of northern & central China until 256 BCE

      2. The Mandate of Heaven

        1. Spokesmen for Zhou dynasty made set of principles that influenced Chinese about government & political legitimacy

        2. Zhou theory assumed that earthly events were related to heavenly affairs

          1. Heavenly powers granted right to govern “mandate of heaven” known as “son of heaven”

          2. Ruler served as a link between heaven & earth

          3. Had duty to govern conscientiously, observe high standards of honor & justice, & maintain harmonious & well-balanced stability

        3. 12th century CE chinese ruling houses usually invoked doctrine of mandate of heaven to justify their rule & emperors habitually took title “son of heaven”

      3. Political Organization

        1. Zhou state was much larger than the Shang

          1. So large that one central court can’t rule entire land effectively

        2. Zhou rulers relied on decentralized administration

          1. Entrusted power, authority, retired owed allegiance, tribute, military support to central government, & responsibility

        3. System worked somewhat well

          1. Conquerors still ruled Zhou ancestral homeland

            1. Capital was Hao (modern  Xi’an)

          2. Subordinates ruled their territories with limited supervision from central government

            1. In return for political right, they visited Zhou royal court on certain occasions to show loyalty for dynasty

              1. Delivered taxes & tribute that accounted for major part of Zhou state

        4. Zhou rulers made arranged marriages that would strengthen ties to their political allies

      4. Weakening of the Zhou

        1. Could not maintain control over decentralized political system

        2. Subordinate slowly made their own bases of power

          1. Ruled their territories not just allies of Zhou kings but long-established & traditional governors 

          2. Set up regional bureaucracies, armies, & tax systems

          3. Made law codes and enforces them with own forces

          4. As more secure in rule became more independent of Zhou dynasty itself

          5. Some subordinates ignored to appear at royal court, provide military support, or deliver taxes 

          6. Some turned forces against the dynasty to build up their states

      5. Iron Metallurgy 

        1. Shang kings largely monopolized production of bronze weapons

        2. Technological changes made Zhou rulers unable to control metal production

        3. 1st millennium BCE technology of iron metallurgy emerged and slowly made bronze weapons no longer produced

          1. Iron ores are cheaper & more abundant than copper & tin

          2. Zhou kings couldn’t control access to them

          3. Subordinates quickly made ironworks and used iron weapons for their forces

        4. 8th century BCE Zhou rulers problems made the dynasty collapse

        5. 771 BCE nomadic people disaffects allies of Zhou & invaded China from the west

        6. The king did not enjoy respect of his political allies

          1. When the subordinates didn’t support the king, invaders overwhelmed the capital at Hao

          2. Royal court moved east to Luoyang in Yellow River valley which served as Zhou capital till end of dynasty

        7. Royal court never regained its authority

        8. 5th century territorial princes ignored central government and used their resources to build, strengthen, & expand

        9. Hoped of establishing themselves as leaders of new political order so they fought their way through it

          1. Zhou dynasty is known as “Period of the Warring States” (403-221 BCE) 

        10. 256 BCE Zhou dynasty ended when last king abdicated position under pressued of subordinate the king of Qin

          1. Qin dynasty in 221 BCE had effective central government

  2. Society and Family in Ancient China

    1. Introduction of agriculture allowed individuals to gain wealth & preserve it in their families

    2. Social distinction began to appear during neolithic times after establishment of Xia, Shang, & Zhou

    3. Patriarchal families emerged and directly influenced individuals lives & roles in large society 

    1. The Social Order

      1. Ruling Elites

        1. Royal family allied noble families that had most honored positions in Chinese society

          1. They lived on agricultural surplus & taxes

        2. Having bronze meant you were really wealthy since high cost of copper & tin

          1. Set apart rich & poor

          2. Ruling elites had a lot of bronze weaponry 

            1. Ensured military strength & political hegemony  

          3. Supplied households with cast-bronze utensils, ports, jars, wine cups, plates, serving dishes, mirrors, bells, drums, & vessels used in ritual ceremonies

        3. Aristocrats had extensive landholdings & worked at administrative & military tasks

          1. Most lived in cities getting their education there & standard living

          2. Had proper manners at the dinner table

        4. Commoners & slaves worked in field to serve their needs

      2. Specialized Labor

        1. Small class of artisans & craftsmen lied trades in cities of ancient China

        2. Bronzesmits lived in houses built of pounded earth

          1. It was expensive to build a pounded earth house because amount of labor needed

        3. Jewelers, jade workers, embroiderers, & manufacturers of silk textiles also had nice lifestyles

      3. Merchants and Trade

        1. Long-distance trade routes might have reached China during Shang dynasty

        2. Small trade networks linked China with lands to west & south in 3rd millennium BCE

        3. Jade in Shang tombs came from central Asia, bronze smiths came from Malay peninsula in southeast Asia

        4. Chinese mariners began nearby waters for profitable sea routes

        5. King Yu, founder of Xia dynasty came up with invention of sails

          1. No evidence of sails before 500 BCE but there is a enough that Chineses mariners used large oar-propelled vessels before 200 BCE

          2. Watercraft supported fishing, trade with other islands, & help help emerge first dynasties

      4. Peasants

        1. Semiservile peasants populated Chinese countryside

          1. Owned no land but provided agriculture, military, & labor services to lords that gave plots to cultivate, security, & portion of harvest

          2. Lived like neolithic predecessors in small subterranean houses

            1. Protected from elements by thatched walls & roofs

            2. Women had mostly indoor activities like wine making, weaving, & cultivation of silkworms

            3. Men had mostly outside jobs like working in the fields, hunting, & fishing

      5. Slaves

    2. Family Patriarchy

      1. Veneration of Ancestors

      2. Patriarchal Society

      3. Women’s Influence 

  3. Early Chinese Writing and Cultural Development 

    1. Oracle Bones and Early Chinese Writing

      1. Oracle Bones

      2. Early Chinese Writing

    2. Thought and Literature in Ancient China

      1. Zhou Literature

      2. The Book of Songs

      3. Destruction of Early Chinese Literature