The Rise and Impact of Nationalism in Nineteenth-Century Europe
The Visual Culture of Nationalism and Sorrieu’s Utopian Vision
In the year , toward the middle of the nineteenth century, a French artist named Fr d ric Sorrieu produced a collection consisting of four prints. These visuals aimed to illustrate his dream of a global society characterized by democratic and social republics. The first print in this series depicts a massive procession involving the peoples of Europe and North America. Men and women of all ages and social statuses are seen marching together in a long line to pay their respects to the Statue of Liberty. This personification of Liberty is depicted as a female figure who holds the torch of Enlightenment in one hand and the Charter of the Rights of Man in the other. In the foreground of this image, symbolising the downfall of the old order, are the shattered remains of symbols representing absolutist institutions. Sorrieu’s vision is considered utopian because it imagines an ideal society identified by distinct nations, each with its unique flags and national dress. Leading this procession are the United States and Switzerland, which had already established themselves as nation-states by that time. They are followed by France, recognizable by its revolutionary tricolour, and the people of Germany, who carry the black, red, and gold flag despite not being a unified nation at the moment the print was created. Other nations in the line include Austria, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary, and Russia. Above this earthly scene, figures such as Christ, saints, and angels look down, serving as symbols of fraternity among the nations of the world.
To understand the historical context of these images, one must define certain key terms. An absolutist government refers to a system of rule that exercises unrestrained power, historically manifesting as a centralized, militarized, and repressive monarchical administration. A utopian vision describes a society so perfect that it is unlikely to exist in reality. Central to this development was the emergence of the nation-state, which differed from the multi-national dynastic empires of the past. While a modern state involves a centralized power exercising sovereign control over a defined territory, a nation-state is characterized by a majority of citizens sharing a common identity, history, or lineage. This commonality is not natural from birth but is forged through political struggles and the collective actions of leaders and citizens.
Philosophical Definitions of the Nation and the Role of Ernst Renan
In , a French philosopher named Ernst Renan provided a critical definition of a nation during a lecture at the University of Sorbonne. His essay, titled ‘Qu’est-ce qu’une nation?’ (‘What is a Nation?’), challenged the popular idea that nations are formed solely by common language, race, religion, or geographical territory. Renan argued that a nation is the result of a long history of collective effort, sacrifice, and devotion. He posited that the social capital of a national idea rests on a heroic past, shared glories, and great men. To have performed great deeds in the past and to maintain a shared will in the present are the essential conditions for a people. He famously described the existence of a nation as a daily plebiscite, meaning its continued existence depends on a direct, ongoing consent from its citizens. Renan viewed the existence of nations as a necessity and a guarantee of liberty, protecting against a world governed by a single master or a single law. A plebiscite is defined as a direct vote wherein the entire population of a region accepts or rejects a specific proposal.
The French Revolution and the Birth of Collective Identity
The origins of modern nationalism are linked to the French Revolution of . Before the revolution, France was a territorial state under the control of an absolute monarch. The subsequent political and constitutional changes shifted sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens. The revolution established that the people constituted the nation and would determine its future. To foster a sense of collective identity, revolutionaries introduced concepts like la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen), emphasizing a unified community with equal rights under a constitution. New national symbols replaced old ones, including the replacement of the royal standard with a new tricolour flag and the renaming of the Estates General to the National Assembly. Administrative systems were centralized to create uniform laws, internal customs duties were abolished, and a uniform system of weights and measures was established. French, specifically the version spoken in Paris, became the official common language to discourage regional dialects. The revolutionaries also believed it was their mission to liberate other European peoples from despotism, helping them transition into independent nations. This sparked the formation of Jacobin clubs among the educated middle classes across Europe, eventually clearing the path for French armies to enter Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and Italy during the s, spreading nationalist ideas through revolutionary wars.
Napoleon’s Administrative Reforms and the Civil Code of 1804
Napoleon Bonaparte, while undermining democracy by returning France to a monarchy, significantly improved the administrative efficiency of the regions under his control. He introduced the Civil Code of , commonly known as the Napoleonic Code, which eliminated privileges based on birth, established legal equality, and protected property rights. These reforms were extended to the Dutch Republic, Switzerland, Germany, and parts of Italy. Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system, and ended serfdom and manorial dues. In urban settings, he removed guild restrictions and improved infrastructure for transport and communication. These changes were initially welcomed by peasants, artisans, and businessmen, who found that uniform laws and standardized currency facilitated the movement of goods and capital. However, the initial enthusiasm of the local populations often turned to hostility. The French administration imposed increased taxation, censorship, and forced conscription into the military to support Napoleon’s goal of conquering the rest of Europe. These burdens were eventually seen as outweighing the benefits of the administrative improvements, as depicted in art from the period, such as the satirical images of soldiers in Zweibr cken and representations of Napoleon losing territories after the Battle of Leipzig in .
The Structure of Eighteenth-Century Europe and the Rise of the New Middle Class
In the middle of the eighteenth century, Europe lacked nation-states in the modern sense. Regions like Germany, Italy, and Switzerland were divided into smaller kingdoms, duchies, and cantons with autonomous rulers. Eastern and Central Europe were dominated by autocratic monarchies ruling over diverse ethnic groups who spoke different languages and lacked a common culture. For instance, the Habsburg Empire of Austria-Hungary was a patchwork of regions including the German-speaking Sudetenland and Austria, the Italian-speaking Lombardy and Venetia, and Hungary, where half the people spoke Magyar. In Galicia, the aristocracy spoke Polish, while diverse peasant groups like Czechs, Slovaks, and Croats lived within the empire. The only unifying factor for these groups was their allegiance to a single emperor.
Socially, the landed aristocracy was the dominant class, share a common lifestyle and often speaking French for diplomacy. Although powerful, they were a small minority compared to the peasantry. In the west, land was mostly farmed by tenants, while Eastern and Central Europe featured large estates worked by serfs. The growth of industrial production, starting in England in the late eighteenth century and spreading to France and Germany in the nineteenth, led to the rise of towns and a new middle class. This class included professionals, businessmen, and industrialists. It was within this educated, liberal middle class that the ideas of national unity and the abolition of aristocratic privileges first became popular. Some key dates during this era include the invasion of Italy by Napoleon in , the Vienna Peace Settlement of through , the start of the Greek independence struggle in , and the Revolutions of .
Liberal Nationalism and Economic Unity
During the early nineteenth century, nationalism was closely tied to the ideology of liberalism, derived from the Latin root liber, meaning free. For the middle class, liberalism represented individual freedom and equality before the law. Politically, it stood for government by consent, a constitution, and representative government, while also emphasizing the protection of private property. However, this did not initially include universal suffrage. In revolutionary France, the right to vote was restricted to property-owning men, and even the Napoleonic Code reduced women to a subordinate status. This led to prolonged social movements by women and non-propertied men for political rights throughout the nineteenth century.
In the economic realm, liberalism advocated for market freedom and the removal of state-imposed restrictions on trade. In the German-speaking regions, which Napoleon had organized into a confederation of states, merchants faced significant barriers. Traveling from Hamburg to Nuremberg in , a merchant would encounter customs barriers, paying a percent duty at each stop. Because weights and measures varied by region—such as the ‘elle’ for cloth measuring in Frankfurt and in Nuremberg—calculating duties was time-consuming. In , the customs union or Zollverein was formed under Prussian initiative. It abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over to just . Economists like Friedrich List argued that this economic unification would strengthen the nation materially and foster national sentiment. The expansion of railway networks further integrated economic interests and bolstered the growing nationalist movement.
The Restoration of Conservatism after 1815 and the Congress of Vienna
Following Napoleon’s defeat in , European governments adopted a conservative spirit. Conservatives aimed to preserve traditional institutions like the monarchy, the Church, and social hierarchies. However, they recognized that Napoleonic modernization—such as a professional army and efficient bureaucracy—could actually strengthen autocratic rule. In , the victors (Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria) met at the Congress of Vienna, hosted by the Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich, to reorganize Europe. The Treaty of Vienna of restored the Bourbon dynasty in France and stripped the country of its annexed territories. New states were established to contain France, such as the Kingdom of the Netherlands (including Belgium) in the north and the addition of Genoa to Piedmont in the south. Prussia gained territory on its western borders, while Austria took control of northern Italy. Russia received part of Poland, and Prussia received part of Saxony. The goal was to restore the monarchies and establish a new conservative order. These regimes were often autocratic and used censorship to suppress the ideas of liberty associated with the French Revolution. In response, liberal-nationalists continued to movement underground, focusing on the freedom of the press and the creation of nation-states.
Revolutionary Movements and Giuseppe Mazzini
The repression following drove many liberal-nationalists to form secret societies dedicated to spreading revolutionary ideas and opposing monarchy. Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian revolutionary born in , was a central figure in this movement. A member of the Carbonari, he was exiled in for his revolutionary activities in Liguria. He founded the underground societies ‘Young Italy’ in Marseilles and ‘Young Europe’ in Berne, recruiting young men from across the continent. Mazzini believed that nations were the natural units of mankind intended by God. He advocated for the unification of the fragmented Italian states into a single republic. His tireless efforts and vision for democratic republics were viewed as a significant threat by conservatives, with Metternich calling him the most dangerous enemy of the existing social order. Following his example, similar secret societies were established in Germany, France, Switzerland, and Poland.
The Age of Revolutions and the Romantic Imagination
Between and , Europe saw frequent revolutions led by the educated middle class. In July , the Bourbon kings in France were overthrown, and Louis Philippe was installed as a constitutional monarch. This event triggered an uprising in Brussels that separated Belgium from the Netherlands. Another major event was the Greek War of Independence, which began in against the Ottoman Empire. Backed by West Europeans who admired ancient Greek culture and poets like Lord Byron, the Greeks successfully fought for their freedom, culminating in the Treaty of Constantinople of .
Nationalism also found expression through culture in a movement known as Romanticism. Romantic artists and poets emphasized emotions and intuition over reason and science, seeking to discover a shared cultural heritage. Johann Gottfried Herder argued that true German culture was found in the common people, or ‘das volk,’ and could be expressed through folk songs and dances (‘volksgeist’). In Poland, national identity was maintained through music and language even after the country was partitioned by Russia, Prussia, and Austria. Karol Kurpinski celebrated the struggle through opera, and the Polish language became a tool of resistance against Russian dominance, with the clergy using it for religious instruction despite the risk of imprisonment in Siberia.
Economic Distress and the 1848 Revolution of the Liberals
The s were marked by severe economic hardship across Europe due to rapid population growth and job shortages. Industrial competition from England hurt small textile producers, and bad harvests led to widespread poverty. In , weavers in Silesia revolted against contractors who had slashed their wages, an event that ended with the military killing weavers. In , food shortages and unemployment in Paris led to the abdication of Louis Philippe and the proclamation of a French Republic. This republic granted suffrage to all adult males over and guaranteed the right to work.
Simultaneously, liberal revolutions broke out in Germany, Italy, and Poland. In the German states, a National Assembly of elected representatives met at the Church of St Paul in Frankfurt in May to draft a constitution for a unified Germany under a constitutional monarchy. However, King Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia rejected the crown, and the assembly eventually lost support when the middle-class deputies ignored the demands of workers. Although these liberal movements were suppressed by conservative forces, the old order could not be fully restored. Autocratic rulers began granting concessions, such as the abolition of serfdom in Russia and the Habsburg domains, and granting autonomy to Hungary in .
The Unification of Germany and Italy
After , nationalism was increasingly used by conservatives to strengthen state power. In Germany, the movement for unification was led by Prussia and its Chief Minister, Otto von Bismarck. Utilizing the Prussian army and bureaucracy, Bismarck oversaw three wars over seven years against Austria, Denmark, and France. These victories led to the unification of Germany and the proclamation of Kaiser William I as the German Emperor at the Palace of Versailles in January . The new German state prioritized modernizing the banking, legal, and currency systems.
Italy also underwent a long process of unification. In the mid-nineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states. Sardinia-Piedmont was the only one ruled by an Italian house. The north was under the Habsburgs, the center was ruled by the Pope, and the south was controlled by the Bourbons of Spain. Count Camillo de Cavour, the Chief Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont, engineered a diplomatic alliance with France to defeat Austria in . Meanwhile, Giuseppe Garibaldi and his ‘Red Shirts’ led a volunteer army into southern Italy in , gaining peasant support to drive out the Spanish. In , Victor Emmanuel II was declared the king of a united Italy. Rome was finally annexed in after French troops were withdrawn.
The Formation of Great Britain and Visual Symbols of the Nation
The formation of the British nation-state was a slow, political process rather than a sudden revolution. Before the eighteenth century, the islands were inhabited by distinct ethnic groups like the English, Scots, Welsh, and Irish. The English Parliament seized power from the monarchy in and used its influence to dominate the other nations. The Act of Union of created the United Kingdom of Great Britain, allowing England to impose its culture on Scotland and suppress Scottish Gaelic culture. Similarly, Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the UK in after the failure of a revolt led by Wolfe Tone. Symbols of British identity, such as the Union Jack and the national anthem ‘God Save Our Noble King,’ were promoted to integrate these regions.
To represent these new nation-states, artists used allegories, often portraying nations as female figures. In France, the figure of Marianne, with her red cap and tricolour cockade, symbolized the republic. In Germany, the figure of Germania was often depicted wearing a crown of oak leaves, representing heroism. Other symbols included broken chains (freedom), the eagle (the German Empire's strength), and the olive branch around a sword (the willingness to make peace).
Nationalism and Imperialism in the Balkans
By the late nineteenth century, nationalism became more aggressive and imperialistic. This was most evident in the Balkans, a region of high ethnic diversity including modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, and Serbia. As the Ottoman Empire weakened, the Balkan states, inhabited by Slavs, struggled for independence. This led to intense conflict between the Balkan nationalities and sparked rivalries among major European powers like Russia, Germany, Britain, and Austria-Hungary. These powers sought to extend their control over the region to secure trade and military advantages. The resulting tensions led to a series of regional wars and ultimately triggered the First World War in . While European nationalism caused disaster, it also inspired anti-imperial movements in colonies worldwide, leading to the global acceptance of the nation-state as a universal political model.