Science and Scientific Research Foundations
Defining Science and Scientific Research
The Diverse Views of Research: Depending on the context, "research" is interpreted in several ways, often incorrectly in a scientific sense:
Consumers: Often view research as looking at online websites to find the best products or services.
Media: Television news channels conduct viewer polls on topics like elections or government projects and label it research.
Students: Undergraduates often define research as searching the Internet for information to complete term papers or projects.
Graduate Students: May view research strictly as the collection or analysis of data for a specific professor's project.
Business/Consulting: View research as finding solutions for organizational issues (e.g., supply chain bottlenecks) or identifying customer purchase patterns.
Criteria for Scientific Research: To be classified as "scientific research," a project must satisfy two specific requirements:
It must contribute to a body of science.
It must follow the scientific method.
The Definition and Classification of Science
Etymological Root: The word "science" comes from the Latin word scientia, which means knowledge.
Formal Definition: Science is a systematic and organized body of knowledge in any area of inquiry that is acquired via the scientific method.
Major Categories of Science:
Natural Science: The science of naturally occurring objects or phenomena (e.g., light, matter, earth, celestial bodies, or the human body).
Physical Sciences: Includes Physics (physical objects), Chemistry (matter), and Astronomy (celestial objects).
Earth Sciences: Includes Geology (the earth).
Life Sciences: Includes Biology (human bodies) and Botany (plants).
Social Science: The science of people or collections of people (groups, firms, societies, economies) and their individual or collective behaviors.
Disciplines: Psychology (human behaviors), Sociology (social groups), and Economics (firms, markets, and economies).
Differences Between Natural and Social Sciences
Natural Science Attributes:
Very precise, accurate, and deterministic.
Independent of the observer; an experiment measuring the speed of sound or the refractive index of water should yield the same results regardless of who performs it, where, or when.
Discrepancies in results usually indicate human error.
Social Science Attributes:
Less accurate and more ambiguous; results are often non-deterministic.
High measurement error: For example, happiness levels vary by day and time for the same individual and cannot be measured by a single instrument.
High variability of social objects: There is considerable uncertainty and disagreement regarding social policy (e.g., how to solve terrorism or a recession), whereas natural scientists rarely disagree on fundamental facts like the speed of light.
Classification of Science by Purpose
Basic Sciences (Pure Sciences): Explain the most fundamental objects, forces, relationships, and laws. Examples include Physics, Mathematics, and Biology.
Applied Sciences (Practical Sciences): Apply knowledge from basic sciences into physical environments.
Engineering: Applies laws of Physics and Chemistry for building bridges or engines.
Medicine: Applies laws of Biology to solve human ailments.
The Interdependency: While industry focuses on applied science for practical value, applied science cannot progress without the foundation of basic science.
Scientific Knowledge: Laws and Theories
Definition: Scientific knowledge comprises generalized bodies of laws and theories used to explain phenomena of interest, acquired through the scientific method.
Laws: Observed patterns of phenomena or behaviors.
Theories: Systematic explanations of the underlying phenomenon or behavior.
Examples in Physics:
Newtonian Laws of Motion: Describe object states (First Law), force required for movement (Second Law), and collisions (Third Law).
Classical Mechanics: A theory of moving objects based on those laws.
Other Theories: Optics (light behavior), Electromagnetic Theory (electricity generation), Quantum Mechanics (subatomic particles), and Thermodynamics (energy/mechanical work).
Examples in Social Science:
Cognitive Dissonance Theory: Explains reactions when observations differ from expectations.
General Deterrence Theory: Explains engagement in improper or criminal behaviors (e.g., software piracy).
Theory of Planned Behavior: Explains conscious, reasoned choices in daily life.
The Goal and Nature of Scientific Research
Objective: To discover laws and postulate theories to build scientific knowledge.
The Imperfection of Knowledge: Scientific knowledge may be imperfect; sometimes there is no single universal truth but an equilibrium of "multiple truths."
Evolution of Science: Progress is marked by moving from poor theories (those that fit reality poorly) to better theories through more accurate instruments and informed logical reasoning.
The Two Pillars of Science:
Logic (Theory): Provides meaning and significance to observations.
Evidence (Observations): Validates or refines theory or helps construct new theory.
Exclusions: Knowledge acquired solely through faith or authority is not considered science.
Levels and Forms of Scientific Research
Theoretical Level: Concerned with developing abstract concepts about phenomena and their relationships.
Empirical Level: Concerned with testing theoretical concepts and relationships against observations of reality.
Research Orientations:
Inductive Research: Also called theory-building research. The goal is to infer theoretical concepts and patterns from observed data.
Deductive Research: Also called theory-testing research. The goal is to test concepts and patterns known from theory using new empirical data to refine, improve, or extend the theory.
The Research "Helix": Rather than a simple circle, research is best viewed as a helix where each iteration between theory and data leads to better explanations.
Inductive is more valuable when prior theories are scarce.
Deductive is more productive when many competing theories exist.
Challenges and Skills in Social Science Research
Difficulty in Refutation: Social theories are hard to disprove due to imprecise concepts and unaccounted factors. For example, Marx's theory of communism lasted decades before being discredited in favor of capitalism, which itself showed flaws in the U.S. mortgage collapse.
Required Skillsets:
Methodological Skills ("Know-how"): Standardized and invariant across disciplines; easily acquired through doctoral programs.
Theoretical Skills ("Know-what"): Tacit skills acquired through years of observation and reflection; harder to master.
Distinction: Methodological skills make an ordinary researcher; theoretical skills make an extraordinary researcher.
The Scientific Method
Definition: A standardized set of techniques for building scientific knowledge (valid observations, result interpretation, and generalization).
Four Key Characteristics:
Logical: Inferences based on logical reasoning.
Confirmable: Inferences must match observed evidence.
Repeatable: Other scientists must be able to replicate the study and find similar results.
Scrutinizable: Procedures and inferences must withstand peer review.
Exclusions from Science: Theology (cannot be tested by independent observers), Arts, Music, Literature, and Law (though worthwhile, they do not follow the scientific method for testing basic laws).
Types of Scientific Research
Exploratory Research: Conducted in new areas of inquiry.
Goals: Scope the magnitude of a phenomenon, generate initial "hunches," or test feasibility.
Example: Investigating citizen dissatisfaction during a recession via GDP figures, expert interviews, or historical examples.
Descriptive Research: Detailed documentation of a phenomenon based on the scientific method.
Example: U.S. Census Bureau demographic statistics or Bureau of Labor employment reports.
Includes: Ethnographic reports on gang activities or the role of Twitter in democracy movements.
Explanatory Research: Seeks explanations of observed phenomena (answering "why" and "how").
Goal: Connect the dots to identify causal factors.
Context: Most academic/doctoral research falls here.
History of Scientific Thought
Terms: The terms "science," "scientists," and "scientific method" were coined only in the 19th century. Previously, science was a branch of philosophy.
Early Philosophers:
Rationalism: Proposed by Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle (3rd century BC). Knowledge is derived from systematic logical reasoning and "first principles" (axioms).
Aristotle's Metaphysics: Separated theology from ontology (the study of being) and universal science.
The Shift to Empiricism:
Francis Bacon (1561-1626): Argued knowledge can only be derived from real-world observations. Developed the "Baconian method" (systematic observation, measurement, experimentation).
The Clash and Synthesis:
Rationalists: René Descartes.
Empiricists: John Locke and David Hume.
Natural Philosophy: Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton fused logic and observation. Galileo noted laws of nature are mathematical.
Bridging the Gap:
Immanuel Kant: In Critique of Pure Reason, he argued experience is subjective; reason must account for this subjectivity, leading to German Idealism.
Auguste Comte (1798–1857): Founded Sociology and Positivism. Argued theories are only authentic if verified through observations.
Modern Revolutions:
Antipositivism: Rejected the idea that social actions can be studied without interpreting the meaning people attach to them (Simmel, Weber, Husserl).
Postpositivism (Postempiricism): Sir Karl Popper suggested theories can never be proven, only disproven (falsification).
Critical Research (Critical Theory): Rooted in Marx and Engels, then Horkheimer and Habermas; aims to critique and change society to emancipate the oppressed.
Thinking Like a Researcher
Definition: The mental retraining required to visualize abstracts from observations, connect dots to identify hidden concepts, and synthesize patterns into generalizable laws.
The Core Deficit: This skill is often the biggest deficit in Ph.D. students because it is not easily taught.
Unit of Analysis
Definition: The person, collective, or object being investigated.
Common Units:
Individuals: Shopping behavior, learning outcomes.
Groups: Street gangs, organizational teamwork.
Firms: Improving profitability.
Countries: National culture differences.
Inanimate Objects: Web pages (when studying attractiveness independent of users).
Dyad: Knowledge transfer between two firms.
Significance: The unit of analysis shapes what data is collected and from whom. For instance, if the unit is the neighborhood, you study neighborhood characteristics, not individual criminals.
Concepts, Constructs, and Variables
Concepts: Generalizable properties associated with objects or people (e.g., weight, attitude, "technostress").
Constructs: Abstract concepts specifically chosen to explain a phenomenon.
Unidimensional: A simple concept like weight.
Multi-dimensional: Consists of multiple underlying concepts (e.g., communication skills involving vocabulary, syntax, and spelling).
Definitions:
Dictionary Definitions: Use synonyms and are often circular; not useful for science.
Operational Definitions: Define constructs by how they will be empirically measured (e.g., measuring temperature in Celsius or IQ as a measure of intelligence).
Variables: Measurable representations (proxies) of abstract constructs.
Construct: Intelligence.
Variable: IQ score.
Types of Variables and Their Roles
Independent Variable: The variable that explains or causes changes in another variable.
Dependent Variable: The variable being explained or affected.
Mediating Variable (Intermediate): A variable explained by an independent variable that, in turn, explains the dependent variable.
Moderating Variable: Influences the relationship or strength between the independent and dependent variables (e.g., effort spent by a student).
Control Variable: Extraneous factors not central to the study but kept constant to avoid bias.
Nomological Network: The overall network of relationships between a set of related constructs.
Propositions and Hypotheses
Propositions: Tentative, conjectural declarative statements about relationships between constructs in the theoretical plane.
Hypotheses: The empirical formulation of propositions, stated as relationships between variables in the empirical plane. These are directly testable.
Hypothesis Strength:
Weak: "IQ scores are related to achievement" (No direction or causality).
Stronger: "IQ scores are positively related to achievement" (Indicates direction).
Best: "IQ scores have positive effects on achievement" (Indicates direction and causality).
Theories and Models
Theory: A system of interrelated constructs and propositions intended to explain/predict behavior within boundary conditions.
Note: Theory is not the opposite of fact; facts are used to test theories.
Model: A representation of all or part of a system intended to study how look it works or what triggers it (represents rather than explains).
Descriptive Models: Used for visualizing complex systems.
Predictive Models: Forecast future events (e.g., regression/weather models).
Normative Models: Guide activities toward accepted practices.
Temporal variants: Static (one point in time) vs. Dynamic (evolution over time).
Induction vs. Deduction in Model Building
Deduction (Logic-driven): Drawing conclusions based on theoretical premises. If premises are true, the conclusion must be true.
Example: Premise 1: Bank has strict ethics. Premise 2: Jamie works there. Conclusion: Jamie is ethical.
Induction (Evidence-driven): Drawing conclusions based on observed facts. Conclusions are only hypotheses and may be disproven by rival explanations.
Example: Observation 1: High spend on ads. Observation 2: No sales increase. Conclusion: Bad execution (but could be recession).
The Integrated Process: Induction identifies a fact and asks "Why?"; deduction narrows down the explanations to the most plausible logic. Researchers must move back and forth between these to advance science.
Defining Science and Scientific Research
Research can be perceived diversely based on the context, leading to various misinterpretations of its scientific significance. For example, consumers may equate research with looking up the best products online, while the media might equate it to conducting viewer polls on current issues. Students often define research as finding information through internet searches to complete their projects, whereas graduate students may limit their definition to data collection and analysis for specific academic projects. In the business and consulting realm, research is viewed as a tool for resolving organizational problems or understanding consumer behaviors.
To qualify as scientific research, a project must meet two criteria: it should contribute to a body of science and adhere to the scientific method.
Etymologically, the term "science" is derived from the Latin word scientia, meaning knowledge. Formally, science is characterized as a systematic and organized body of knowledge acquired through the scientific method. Science is categorized into several major domains: Natural Sciences study naturally occurring entities and phenomena, including Physical Sciences (which encompass Physics, Chemistry, and Astronomy), Earth Sciences (such as Geology), and Life Sciences (like Biology and Botany). Conversely, Social Sciences focus on human behavior and societal groups, with sub-disciplines like Psychology, Sociology, and Economics.
The distinction between natural and social sciences is evident, as the former tends to be precise, deterministic, and independent of the observer, reflecting consistent results across studies, while the latter is characterized by ambiguity, variability, and a higher likelihood of measurement error.
In terms of purpose, science can be classified as Basic Science (Pure Sciences), which explores fundamental entities and relationships, such as Physics and Biology, or Applied Science (Practical Sciences), which utilizes knowledge for practical applications like in Engineering and Medicine. This interplay between basic and applied sciences underscores their interdependence, with applied sciences relying on the foundational principles established by basic sciences. Scientific knowledge inherently comprises laws and theories formed through the scientific method, with laws being observed patterns of phenomena and theories offering systematic explanations.
The objective of scientific research is to uncover laws and develop theories to expand scientific knowledge, although it is acknowledged that such knowledge may often be imperfect. The advancement of science is marked by a progression from inadequate theories to more refined ones, achieved through enhanced instruments and logical reasoning.
The scientific method stands out as a standardized approach for acquiring scientific knowledge, characterized by its logical basis, confirmability, repeatability, and subject to peer scrutiny. However, it is important to note that knowledge gained merely through faith or authoritative sources does not qualify as science.
Scientific research encompasses various types: Exploratory Research explores new inquiry areas; Descriptive Research meticulously documents phenomena, and Explanatory Research seeks to explain why observed phenomena occur.
Historically, the concepts of "science" and the "scientific method" emerged in the 19th century, building on earlier philosophical foundations such as Rationalism and Empiricism, championed by figures like Aristotle and Francis Bacon, respectively. The evolution of thought progressed through the integration of logic and observation, demonstrated by philosophers such as Kant and Comte, leading to modern scientific paradigms including postpositivism and critical research. Thinking like a researcher necessitates a significant mental retraining to connect observations with abstract concepts and formulate generalizable laws.
The unit of analysis in research can vary, encompassing individuals, groups, firms, countries, inanimate objects, or dyads. Each unit informs the type of data collected and the insights drawn from the study. Concepts, constructs, and variables play a crucial role in research design, with variables classified as independent, dependent, mediating, moderating, or control variables, each affecting the dynamics of the research inquiry. Propositions are tentative statements about relationships between constructs, while hypotheses provide the empirical formulations of these propositions, establishing testable relationships between variables. Theories consist of interconnected constructs and propositions designed to explain behavior within specific parameters, whereas models serve as representations of systems to explore their workings or triggers. In model building, deduction relies on theoretical premises for conclusions, while induction bases conclusions on observed facts, with researchers constantly oscillating between these methods to advance scientific understanding.