Refugee Research and Definitions

  • Researcher Role: The role of a migration researcher involves considering the insights provided by scholars investigating the insider/outsider dynamics in migration studies (Carling et al., 2014).

  • Refugee Definition:

    • Refugees are defined as individuals living outside their country of origin who are unwilling or unable to return due to a well-founded fear of persecution for reasons based on:
    • Race
    • Religion
    • Nationality
    • Membership in a specific social group
    • Political opinion
    • Source: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR, 2020b).
    • This definition is derived from Article 1A(2) of the 1951 Refugee Convention, which establishes both the legal rights of refugees and the obligations of signatory countries (United Nations General Assembly, 1951).
    • Additionally, individuals who arrive lawfully, escaping persecution or human rights violations, are also considered refugees (Department of Home Affairs, 2021).

  • Global Displacement Statistics:

    • In 2020, there were 82.4 million displaced individuals globally, including 26.4 million refugees (UNHCR, 2020a).
    • Contrary to common belief, 86% of displaced individuals are settled in countries with transitioning economies or in low-income, developing nations (e.g., Turkey) (UNHCR, 2020a).

  • Australia’s Humanitarian Policy:

    • Australia’s humanitarian program consists of two categories:
    • Humanitarian (refugee visas)
    • Special Humanitarian (sponsored visas)
    • Resettlement of refugees occurs from both onshore and offshore sources.
    • The program's origins trace back to World War II, when European refugees were settled via the International Refugee Organization, a precursor to the UNHCR.
    • Since the initiation of this program, Australia has aided in the resettlement of over 900,000 refugees (Newmann, 2016).
    • The Department of Home Affairs determines the eligibility of individuals for Australian entry, consulting with the UNHCR per the 1951 Refugee Convention.
    • Between 2019 and 2020, Australia accepted 13,171 individuals, including 6,422 offshore refugees.
    • Recent influxes of refugees have predominantly originated from the Middle East, Afghanistan, Central Africa, the Horn of Africa, and Asia (Department of Home Affairs, 2021).

Asylum Seeking and Detention Policies

  • Right to Asylum:

    • Individuals, including unaccompanied minors, possess the right to seek asylum as stated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948).

  • Challenges in Seeking Asylum in Australia:

    • Australia’s evolving policies complicate the asylum claims process, particularly for those arriving by boat, as these arrivals are perceived as unauthorized entries.
    • Many asylum seekers may be forced to leave their home countries without access to formal authorized avenues for seeking protection.
    • Approximately 89% of those arriving by boat are ultimately recognized as refugees needing protection, in contrast to 43% of those arriving by plane with valid visas (Refugee Council of Australia, 2019).

  • Mandatory Detention Policy:

    • Since 2001, Australia has enforced a policy mandating that all maritime arrivals be detained offshore.
    • Public concern arose regarding the conditions in which refugees, especially children, were held in detention centers, leading to a National Inquiry into Children in Immigration Detention in 2014 (Australian Human Rights Commission, 2014).
    • In 2014, around 800 children were held in indefinite mandatory detention, negatively impacting their development due to overcrowding and poor living conditions.
    • Detainees commonly faced challenges including poverty, health issues, trauma, anxiety, depression, and disorders related to post-traumatic stress and attachment (Department of Immigration & Border Protection, 2014).

Transitions for Refugee Families

  • Nature of Migration and Resettlement:

    • Migration and resettlement mark significant transitions in the lives of refugee families (Jasso, 2003).
    • Transition is described as a ‘passage from one life phase, condition, or status to another’ (Chick & Meleis, 1986, p. 239).
    • Key transitions are categorized as:
    • Pre-flight (before and as they leave their native country)
    • In-flight (during travel and living in refugee camps)
    • Post-flight (resettlement in a new nation) (UNHCR, 1999).

  • Complex Nature of Transition:

    • According to a service provider in a study by Reid and Sanagavarapu, every aspect of adjustment in a new country poses unique challenges, including:
    • Navigating language barriers.
    • Understanding the schooling system for children.
    • Addressing accommodation and financial stability concerns.
    • Transition embodies an internal psychological response that influences relationships, routines, assumptions, and roles (Meleis, 2015).
    • Bridges (2003) characterizes the transition process for refugees as consisting of:
    • Ending Period: Letting go of previous lifestyles and thinking.
    • Neutral Period: Reflecting on changes and options.
    • New Beginning: Adapting to new demands and behaviors in the host country.
    • Transitions are often unpredictable and fluid (Meleis, 2015).

  • Coping with Transitions:

    • Schlossberg (2011) formulated the ‘four S’s’ model, relevant for managing transitions:
    • Situation: Type, timing, triggers, and duration of the event.
    • Self: One’s inner strengths and demographic factors (gender, socio-economic status, etc.).
    • Support: Assistance from friends, family, and community relationships.
    • Strategies: Approaches employed to handle changes or adjust behaviors.
    • The adjustment of families during transitions is influenced by factors across the ecosystem, including personal, familial, cultural, and community contexts.
    • Positive community attitudes towards refugees can enhance their social connections and facilitate better integration.
    • Factors such as gender, culture, vulnerability, and community circumstances greatly impact positive transitions.

Transnational Resettlement and Integration

  • Definition of Transnational Resettlement:

    • Refers to the process of transferring refugees from their original countries to nations willing to accept them.

  • Challenges in Integration:

    • Integration is inherently complex (Caidi et al., 2010).
    • Successful integration involves three core elements:
    • Markers and Means of Integration: Achieving successful employment, educational engagement, and good health.
    • Facilitators of Integration: Learning the local language and gaining knowledge of local culture.
    • Processes of Social Connections: Establishing relationships, obtaining emotional support, and participating in civic activities (Ager & Strang, 2008).

  • Supporting Newly Arrived Refugees:

    • Newly arrived families require significant support to access resources that assist with integration and community connection.
    • Various factors hinder refugee families including trauma, distrust, cultural barriers, and challenges with navigating complex systems (Strang et al., 2018).
    • These barriers can lead to negative outcomes such as poverty, unemployment, discrimination, and marginalization (Jenkinson et al., 2016; Keierns & Whietely, 2015; Smit, 2015).

Discourses in Refugee and Migration Research

  • Language and Terminology:

    • The language used in refugee and migration discussions has become increasingly nuanced, yet there is a tendency for everyday terms (like integration and adaptation) to be conflated, implying expectations of assimilation (Grzymala-Kazlowska & Phillimore, 2018).
    • Acculturation vs. Assimilation:
    • Acculturation relates to the processes of adaptation, while assimilation implies a one-directional absorption of newcomers into established societies.
    • Integration is recognized as a two-way adaptation process between refugees and receiving societies (Strang et al., 2018, p. 197).

  • Implying Normative Assumptions:

    • The assumption that all migrants should aspire to integrate leads to a need for reflection on the interpretation of these terms concerning refugees' agency and aspirations.

Trauma and Trust Issues for Refugees

  • Triple Trauma Concept:

    • Many refugee families encounter ‘triple trauma’, stemming from:
    • Pre-migration hardships (e.g., poverty, abuse, and safety concerns).
    • Difficulties experienced during migration (e.g., refugee camps).
    • Post-migration challenges (e.g., isolation, discrimination).
    • ‘Roots shock’ describes the dislocation felt by refugees when they leave their home countries, contributing to family and child anxiety and depression, detrimentally impacting their mental health and capabilities to seek employment or establish social ties (Bogic et al., 2012; Cleary et al., 2018; O’Donnell et al., 2020).

  • Trust Issues:

    • Trust is essential for fostering social bonds and cohesion, yet refugees' prior traumatic experiences lead to significant mistrust towards governments and local communities (Hynes, 2003).
    • Mistrust emerges as a prominent barrier to the settlement of families, encapsulated by choices such as hoarding money rather than using banks or hesitance to engage with educational settings due to fears of disapproval of their children's behaviors (McBrien, 2011).
    • Often, systems in place are lacking in sensitivity to language and cultural differences, compounded by inconsistencies and discrimination in bureaucratic treatment of refugees (Strang et al., 2018).