Comprehensive Study Notes on Criminalistics and Forensic Science
Historical Foundations and Theoretical Evolution of Criminalistics
The development of criminalistics as a scientific discipline is marked by several key figures and historical phases. Hans Gross, a professor at the University of Graz, Prague, and Cernovic, is recognized for his seminal works, including "Psikologjia Kriminale" (Criminal Psychology) and "Manual për gjyqtarë hetues si sistem i kriminalistikës" (Manual for Investigating Judges as a System of Criminalistics). The historical evolution of the probative system in criminal proceedings has transitioned through three distinct phases: the mystic phase, the legal phase, and the phase of free conviction. In the legal phase, the confession or the process of determining guilt was historically referred to as the "Queen of Evidence" or "Regina Probecius."
Earlier systems for identifying offenders relied heavily on catching individuals in flagrante delicto (red-handed). Modern criminalistics has evolved into a system of knowledge that provides technical and tactical recommendations for the organization, planning, and development of investigations tailored to various types of criminal acts. This field is generally divided into three main branches: technical criminalistics (teknika kriminalistike), tactical criminalistics (taktika kriminalistike), and methodical criminalistics (metodika kriminalistike). Within technical criminalistics, further subdivisions include recording techniques (teknika regjistruese), investigative techniques (teknika hetimore), and operative techniques (teknika operative).
Methods and Systems of Human Identification
Identification of persons is a core objective of criminalistics, involving the verification of characteristics that distinguish an individual from all others. Anthropometry, pioneered by Alphonse Bertillon, is a method of identification based on precise measurements of the human body and bone structure. Another foundational method is the "Verbal Portrait" (Porteri Verbal), which categorizes descriptive signs into three groups: static signs (anatomical construction of the body), dynamic signs (functional habits such as body positioning, gestures, and habits), and special signs (anatomical abnormalities or functional defects).
Advancements in synthesizing these portraits led to several specific methods. The "Photofit" method, whose foundations were set by Zhak Penri and Pier Shebo, allows for the combination of over synthetic faces. The "Identikit" method involves synthesizing a portrait in the form of a drawing based on witness statements using specialized slides or cassettes containing specific facial features such as chins, mustaches, and eyebrows. The "Fotorobot" similarly uses parts of photographs (hair, forehead, eyes, etc.) pre-cut from various individuals and organized into albums to create a composite image.
Specific identification methods also include "Hejloskopia," which is the study of lip prints, and "Pedoskopi" or "Pelmatoskopi," the study of footprints from bare feet. For voice-based identification, researchers look back to the early th century and the work of scientists like Eduart Silver. Modern voice identification uses a specialized apparatus known as a Sound Spectrograph (Spektografi zanor) or Sonograph to compare a subject's voice with a recorded sample.
Forensic Photography and Technical Documentation
The history of photography in criminalistics dates back to , when Zh. Nespu first captured images on light-sensitive plates. Later, William Fox Talbot (also known as Fox Tabolt) established the foundations of the photographic process using advanced paper treated with chlorine and iodine to create negatives. John Herschel and Alphonse Bertillon also made significant contributions to the field. Specifically, Bertillon is credited with the foundations of Photogrammetry, a technique used to measure dimensions and distances at a crime scene to compile accurate plans and sketches.
Forensic photography is categorized into several groups. Investigative photography (fotografia hetimore) includes micro and macro photography, infrared/ultraviolet photography, and methods that enhance contrast. Operative photography (fotografia operative) involves techniques used during special operations, such as panoramic, perimetric, stereoscopic, and secret photography (fotografia e fshehtë). High-precision records, such as those of tire tracks or shell casings, often utilize scaling photography (fotografia shkallëzuese) to determine the exact size of the objects. Holography (holografia) is a specific branch involving the application of laser light to study traces.
Dactyloscopy and Papillary Line Evidence
Dactyloscopy is the study of papillary lines on the fingers, palms, and soles. Marcelo Malpighi was the first to discover these lines and named them "papules" (from the Latin "papilla"). Papillary patterns form during intrauterine life, specifically in the th month of pregnancy. The Galton-Henry classification system, developed by Francis Galton and Edward Henry at the beginning of the th century, laid the scientific foundations for modern fingerprinting. Ivan Vucetic is also credited with creating mixed systems of identification that integrated dactyloscopy with Bertillon's anthropometry.
Modern dactyloscopy is managed through the AFIS (Automated Fingerprint Identification System), which automates the identification of fingerprints. A fingerprint contains three main zones: the central zone, the marginal zone, and the basal zone. Traces of papillary lines can be detected using various methods, including chemical treatments like Ninhydrin and the use of specialized lighting such as laser or UV light (though the transcript notes the "lighting pistol" as a non-chemical method). For hair analysis in comparisons, at least individual hairs should be collected from different parts of the suspect's scalp for DNA analysis.
Forensic Biology: Blood, Hair, and Secretions
Biological evidence is analyzed through various lenses. The criminalistic aspect of blood examination focuses on finding traces and determining the circumstances of the crime, while the medical-legal and biological aspects focus on whether a stain is blood, if it is human or animal, and determining the blood group. To determine the blood group from a hair sample, the structure (parts) of the hair is the most critical factor. Liquid blood taken from a corpse remains suitable for laboratory examination if it is not older than hours ( days).
Spermatozoa can be found in sufficient quantities in living persons for up to hours post-coitum, though some tests can detect them up to hours later. The most efficient method for detecting semen traces is the phosphate method (metoda fosfatike). In broader DNA analysis, nuclear DNA (ADN nukleare) is used for samples containing cellular tissue or hair roots, while mitochondrial DNA (ADN mitokondriale) is preferred for naturally fallen hair, bone fragments, and teeth.
Forensic Ballistics and Firearm Investigation
Internal ballistics, the study of the projectile's movement within the barrel, saw major advancements in by the French scientist Pioneri. Other branches include external ballistics and terminal ballistics (balistika terminale), which studies the effect of the projectile on the target. The researcher Balthazard is noted for studying how firearm parts leave distinct marks on casings and projectiles.
When investigating at a crime scene, the distance of the shot is categorized as contact (puqitje), near-distance, or far-distance. A contact shot occurs when the muzzle is pressed against the target; this can be full contact, partial contact, or angled contact. In a human body, the entry wound's size can help estimate the caliber: the caliber is typically to mm larger than the wound diameter itself. The time since a shot was fired can be determined using magnetic measurements for up to days. If a firearm is to be transported a long distance to a ballistics lab, the barrel should not be cleaned; instead, it should be plugged with a stopper to preserve residue. The "paraffin glove" (dorashka e parafinë) is a historical technique used to detect gunpowder residue on the hands of a shooter.
Criminological Classifications of Death and Suicide
Criminalistics distinguishes between several types of suicide based on motive and method. Tendency suicide (vetëvrasje tendencioze) is committed to make a statement, blame someone, or manifested as a protest. Balanced suicide (vetëvrasje bilancore) occurs when an individual concludes that the harms of their life outweigh the benefits. Altruistic suicide (vetëvrasje altruistike) involves an individual sacrificing their life for an idea or the perceived benefit of others. Chronic suicide (vetvrasje kronike) refers to planned actions that take place over a long period (days, weeks, or years). Complex or combined suicide involves using two or more methods simultaneously or successively.
Post-mortem phenomena used to determine the time of death include body cooling (ftofja e kufomës), post-mortem staining (njollat kufomore), and rigor mortis (shtangësia e kufomës). These are considered early post-mortem signs, while decomposition (kalbëzimi) and mummification (mumifikimi) are later signs. Forensic Entomology (Etnomoligjia forenzike) involves the study of insects on the corpse to estimate the time of death. The process of exhumation (eksumim) involves digging up a corpse for post-mortem examination or autopsy.
Investigation of Property and Economic Crime
Theft is the taking of another's movable property for illegal gain. Specific forms include pickpocketing (vjedhja në xhepa), which may involve a technique called "truk" (crashing into the victim). Those involved in pickpocketing operations are sometimes categorized as "extractors" (nxjerrësi), "senders" (dërguesi), and "keepers" (ruajtësi). Robbery (grabitja) involves the use of force or serious threat to take property, while predatory theft (vjedhja grabitqare) occurs when force is used to retain property already stolen.
Counterfeiting of currency and securities is almost exclusively an intentional crime. Forgery of documents can be total or partial, using techniques like mechanical or chemical erasing, additions, and corrections. Sophisticated tools for opening cylindrical locks include the "Lockaid" metal comb, while the tool known as "Llap" is commonly used for breaking into safes. Economic crime involves forms like corruption and misuse of authority.
Organized Crime, Terrorism, and Narcotics
Organized crime involves groups meeting specific criteria: at least mandatory conditions must be present. Terrorism can be classified as technological (unauthorized access to computer systems to cause chaos), psychic, political, or combat-related. The attacks are cited as a typical example of political terrorism. Methods of terrorist acts often involve explosions, which can be triggered by mechanical, chemical, or electrical means.
Narcotics are classified based on their source and effect. Morphine, an opium derivative, has a much stronger effect when injected rather than taken orally—specifically to times more powerful. Heroin also belongs to the opium group. Drug enforcement is often associated with the specialized American agency, the DEA. Alcohol intoxication is measured in three stages: when concentration is between and g/l, it affects the midbrain (dehje); concentrations from up to g/l affect the lower encephalon, resulting in deep intoxication (dehje e thellë). Specific tools like the Intoximeter (Alkoomatës) are used to measure alcohol via breath.
Traffic Accident Investigation and Environmental Criminology
In road traffic accidents, the coefficient of friction is highest on dry asphalt ( to ). Braking marks are essential to determine the vehicle's position and speed. Accidents are technically defined as events occurring under specific conditions of movement or collision.
Environmental criminology, or ecology (from the Greek "oikos" meaning home), deals with pollutants. These are classified by their chemical nature (organic vs. inorganic) or by their characteristics (biodegradability, resistance, etc.). Fires can be natural, technical, or criminal. A criminal fire often has more than two points of origin (vatra). The color of the smoke can indicate the material burning: white smoke can indicate phosphorus or certain acids.
Techniques of Torture and Psychological Interrogation
Torture is categorized into physical and psychological methods. Deprivation (privimi), such as denying sleep or food, is classified as psychological torture. Early polygraph (lie detector) research is associated with Cesare Lombroso and A. Mosso. The "Brain Machine" is an apparatus used to measure physiological reactions during interrogation, such as blood pressure and respiratory rates. In professional criminalistics, the "Golden Questions" (Pytjet e arta) of an investigation include: What happened? Where? When? How? With what? With whom? Why? Who? and From where?
Questions & Discussion
Question 6: How many hair samples should be taken for comparison using the DNA method? Answer: No less than hairs from different parts of the scalp.
Question 50: How many times more powerful is injected morphine compared to oral consumption? Answer: to times more powerful.
Question 115: What is the ratio of minors involved in violent sexual crimes according to investigative practice? Answer: Every seventh (th) perpetrator in this group is a minor.
Question 208: Which author concluded that criminology is the science that studies real phenomena related to criminal law? Answer: Hans Gross.