Learning Theories and Conditioning
Albert Bandura
- Social Learning Theory: Learning through observation and modeling.
- Learning involves environmental and psychological factors.
- Bobo doll experiment on aggression.
Ivan Pavlov
- Classical Conditioning: Learning through associations.
- Dogs salivating to the sight of food.
- Conditioned dogs to salivate to a bell by associating it with food.
- Foundation for Behaviorism.
Robert Rescorla
- Expanded on Pavlov’s work with Contingency Theory.
- Focus on the frequency of associations.
- Positive contingency: Strong association between bell and food.
- (bell)(food)−−−−−−−−−−−−(bell)(food)−−−−−−−−−−(bell)(food)−−−−−−−−−−(bell)…
- Negative contingency: Weak association between bell and food.
- (bell)(food)−−−−−(bell)(bell)−−−−(food)−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−(food)−−−−−−(bell)…
B.F. Skinner
- Operant Conditioning: Using consequences to change behavior.
- Behavior rate is determined by consequences, not antecedents.
- Skinner Box experiments with rats and pigeons.
Edward Thorndike
- Learning Theory: Studied cats escaping puzzle boxes.
- Escape was trial and error, not insight.
- Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by desirable consequences are more likely to be repeated.
Edward Tolman
- Latent Learning: Learning occurs without immediate reward.
- Rats in a maze experiment developed "mental maps".
John B. Watson
- Father of Behaviorism: Focus on observable behavior.
- Little Albert Experiment: Conditioned fear of a white rat.
- Fear generalized to other furry white objects.
John Garcia
- Conditioned Taste Aversion: Aversion to taste/smell associated with negative reaction.
- Discovered while studying radiation effects on mice.
- "Garcia Effect" in cancer patients.
Key Concepts and Terms
- Learning: Changes in behavior and mental processes due to experience.
- Topic 4.1: Introduction to Learning
- Learning Target 4.A: Contributions of key researchers.
- Topic 4.B: Graphs in Learning Experiments
- Generalization and Discrimination
- Topic 4.C: Essential Characteristics of Insight, Latent, and Social Learning
- Topic 4.D: Applying Learning Principles
- Emotional Learning, Taste Aversion, Superstitious Behavior, Learned Helplessness
- Topic 4.E: Biological Constraints on Learning
- Learning predispositions.
Insight Learning (Wolfgang Köhler)
- Problem-solving through understanding relationships, not trial and error.
- Chimpanzee Sultan using sticks to get bananas.
Latent Learning (Edward Tolman)
- Learning is obvious when reinforcement is given.
- Rats develop cognitive maps.
Observational / Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)
- Acquiring information by observing others.
- Bobo doll study: Children learn aggression by watching others.
- Prosocial and antisocial behaviors.
Emotional Learning
- Conditioned Emotional Response: Classical conditioning of emotions.
- Watson's Little Albert experiment.
- Stimulus generalization.
Taste Aversion
- Resistance to a food due to a negative experience.
- Survival mechanism.
- Garcia's research with radiation and food aversion in rats.
Superstitious Behavior
- Behavior reinforced by unrelated events.
- Skinner's Pigeon Experiment.
Learned Helplessness (Seligman)
- Giving up after repeated exposure to aversive stimuli.
- Belief that no actions can avoid the stimulus.
Classical Conditioning
- Learning Target 4.F: Describe basic classical conditioning phenomena.
- Pavlov’s experiment with dogs:
- Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): food
- Unconditioned Response (UCR): salivation
- Neutral Stimulus (NS): bell
- Conditioned Stimulus (CS): bell
- Conditioned Response (CR): salivation
- Contiguity: NS/CS before UCS.
- Acquisition: Learning the response pairing.
- Extinction: Conditioned response dies out.
- Spontaneous Recovery: CR reappears after extinction.
- Generalization: CR to similar stimuli.
- Stimulus Discrimination: CR to ONLY the CS.
- Higher-Order Learning: CS paired with new NS.
- Watson’s experiment with Little Albert.
- CONTINGENCY MODEL: Rescorla & Wagner – classical conditioning involves cognitive processes
- CONDITIONED TASTE AVERSION (ONE-TRIAL LEARNING): John Garcia – Innate predispositions can allow classical conditioning to occur in one trial (food poisoning)
- COUNTERCONDITIONING (EXPOSURE THERAPY / DESENSITIZATION): Mary Cover Jones
Classical vs Operant vs Observational Learning
- Classical Conditioning: Learning to link stimuli and anticipate events; involuntary.
- Operant Conditioning: Learning through reinforcement or punishment; learn through actions.
- Observational Learning: Learning by observing others.
Basic Processes
| Classical Conditioning | Operant Conditioning |
|---|
| Acquisition | CS and US are paired to result in a CR. Stimulus contiguity. | Contingent reinforcement increases response. May involve shaping. |
| Extinction | CS presented alone until it no longer elicits a CR. | Responding slows and stops after reinforcement ends. |
| Spontaneous | Reappearance of extinguished response after nonexposure to CS. | Resistance to extinction. |
| Generalization | CR elicited by new stimulus resembling original CS. | Organism responds to new stimuli besides the original stimulus |
| Discrimination | CR not elicited by new stimulus resembling original CS. | Organism does not respond to other stimuli that resemble the original stimulus. |
Operant Conditioning
- Learning Target 4.H: Predict the effects of operant conditioning.
- Edward Thorndike: Law of Effect.
- B.F. Skinner: Operant conditioning, Skinner box.
Principles of Operant Conditioning
- Positive Reinforcement: Add something nice to increase behavior.
- Negative Reinforcement: Take away something bad to increase behavior.
- Positive Punishment: Add something bad to decrease behavior.
- Negative Punishment: Take away something good to decrease behavior.
Reinforcers
- Primary: Innately satisfying (food, water).
- Secondary: Conditioned reinforcers (stickers, high-fives).
Operant Conditioning Concepts
- Generalization: Respond to similar stimulus for reward.
- Discrimination: Stimulus signals when behavior will/won't be reinforced.
- Extinction / Spontaneous Recovery: same as classical conditioning
- Premack Principle: high probability activities reinforce low probability activities
- Overjustification Effect: reinforcing behaviors reduces intrinsic motivation
- Shaping: Use successive approximations to train behavior.
- Chaining: Tie together several behaviors.
Schedules of Reinforcement
- Continuous: Reward every response.
- Fixed Ratio: Reward every X responses.
- Fixed Interval: Reward every X time passed.
- Variable Ratio: Reward after a random number of responses.
- Variable Interval: Reward after a random amount of time passed.
- Variable schedules are most resistant to extinction.
Reinforcement and Punishment
- Reinforcement increases behavior; punishment decreases behavior.
- Punishment side effects: negative emotions, aggression.
Reinforcement Schedules Compared
| Schedule | Response Rate | Pattern | Resistance to Extinction |
|---|
| Fixed-ratio | Very high | Steady, pause if high | High |
| Variable-ratio | Highest | Constant | Most resistant |
| Fixed-interval | Lowest | Pause, then accelerate | Moderate |
| Variable-interval | Moderate | Stable, uniform | More resistant |
Social and Cognitive Factors in Learning
- Learning Target 4.J: Suggest how behavior modification, biofeedback, coping strategies, and self-control can be used to address behavioral problems.
Behavior Modification
- Using operant conditioning to eliminate unwanted behaviors.
- Ex: Counter conditioning.
Biofeedback
- Using operant conditioning to change behavior by internal feedback (Ex: stress)
- Biofeedback Machine = Sound when stressed
Self-Control
- Delay immediate desires for long-term benefits.
- Better grades, social success
Locus of Control
- Perception of control over life.