Chapter 11

The eastern half of the Roman Empire, known as Byzantium, survived for 1,000 years after the fall of the western empire.
This civilization carried on many Roman traditions and introduced innovations in architecture, science, religion, and learning, becoming a significant part of world history.
Byzantium is often less recognized in modern interpretations of history due to its eventual collapse and absorption into the Turkish Ottoman Empire, alongside the stark religious divide between Christians and Muslims.
The inhabitants of Constantinople referred to themselves as Romans long after the western empire fell, maintaining a connection to their Roman identity.

Founded by Emperor Constantine who established Constantinople (formerly Byzantium) as the new capital.
By the 5th century CE, the eastern empire was the center of wealth and power within the Roman Empire.
Germanic kings acknowledged a form of vassalage to the emperor of Constantinople, showing the continued significance of the eastern emperor, at least until the decline in the 7th century.

Constantinople played a crucial role in the eastern empire's wealth and power.
- Unlike the reduced state of Rome, Constantinople was a thriving metropolis with about 500,000 residents.
- The city was well-defended and maintained its power through military capabilities and a strong sense of Roman identity.

The eastern empire collected approximately 270,000 pounds of gold annually in tax revenue, while the western part managed just 20,000 pounds.
The efficient bureaucracy in the east allowed for greater financial support for military resources, as opposed to the fragmentation seen in the west.

Roman identity was stronger in the east, supported by military successes and loyalty among social elites.
The absence of significant Gothic threats directed toward the east contributed to the stability of Byzantine power, unlike the west which faced relentless barbarian invasions.

The last Roman emperor to speak Latin, remembered for his extensive contributions to architecture, military conquests, and legal reforms.
Defined the dual role of the emperor as the secular and spiritual leader of Christendom.
Known for his campaigns against heretical sects and for enforcing religious orthodoxies.

Commissioned the Corpus Juris Civilis, a comprehensive codification of Roman law.
Major architectural achievement includes the Hagia Sophia, representing advanced Byzantine design.
His wife, Theodora, played a pivotal role in political and social reforms, particularly concerning women's and children's rights.

Justinian aimed to reconquer the western territories lost to the Germanic kingdoms.
- Successfully regained control of North Africa from the Vandals by 534.
- Engaged in extensive conflicts with the Ostrogoths in Italy, leading to long-term military struggle and economic draining post-conquest.

The Plague of Justinian (542 CE) severely impacted population and military recruitment.
Frequent natural disasters and weakening economic ties between east and west ensued.
Ongoing wars with Persia strained resources, leading to lengthy and costly diplomatic engagements.

After Justinian's reign, Byzantine power began to wane with territorial losses and increased pressure from surrounding enemies, particularly the emerging caliphates.

The rise of Islam in the 7th century presented a new set of challenges, including the rapid conquests of Byzantine territories.
Despite Heraclius’ efforts to stabilize the empire, significant losses occurred in the Near East.

The introduction of the theme system during Heraclius’ reign improved military recruitment and local loyalties.
Soldiers were granted lands in exchange for military service, ensuring localized defense for a weakened empire.

Byzantine missionaries like St. Cyril contributed to the spread of Eastern Orthodoxy among Slavic peoples.
The establishment of an alphabet for Slavic languages facilitated religious conversion and cultural integration.

The city served as a central hub for trade, benefiting from a cash economy and high-quality crafts.
Substantial trade links allowed Byzantium to engage economically even amidst military conflicts, ensuring longer-term stability.

The territory continued to shrink due to both external pressures from various invaders and internal economic difficulties.
The Fourth Crusade (1204 CE) marked a significant weakening with the invasion of Constantinople, leading to further territorial loss and diminished prestige.

The culmination of issues led to the fall of Constantinople in 1453, marking the end of Byzantine influence and the formal closure of the Roman Empire since its inception.
The emergence of the Ottoman Turks signified a new political order in the region, ultimately transforming the legacy of Byzantium into what would become the Islamic Empire.