CULTURE AND IDENTITY (half)

2.1 CONCEPTIONS OF CULTURE

What is culture

• culture = a way of life for a particular society or part of society. This socially developed and socially transmitted by socialisation

• Contemporary society is characterised by cultural diversity = within one society there are a wide range of cultural values

• Multiculturalism = the view that different cultures deserve to have their differences acknowledged and celebrated within a dominant political culture. However David Cameron argued that the 7/7 bombings were because the UK had failed to ensure people had a shared culture and a shared set of values

• Cultural homogenisation = cultures becoming more similar, as a dominant culture has invaded and replaced local culture

Different concepts of culture

Subculture

• a smaller groups that share their own norms and values, distinct from those of the main culture of a society

• However postmodernists like Maffesoli talk about neo-tribes, suggesting that its often consumer choices which unite groups rather than broader norms

• Also postmodernists would also argue there is no ‘main culture’, society is too diverse

Mass culture

• the idea that there is a set of norms and values that the vast majority in the population share, developed from a common exposure to the same media, news, music and art

• This relates to the idea of homogenisation of culture

• Neo-Marxists of the Frankfurt school suggested that mass culture has replaced local culture due to industrialisation

• For example mass media is designed to appeal to a mass audience, rather than folk culture

Folk culture

• the culture of ordinary people, particularly those living in pre-industrial societies

• Considered as a culture passed down through generations by word of mouth, rather than from an era of mass literacy

High/ low culture

• the idea that some cultural practices and products are superior to others

• High culture refers to high quality cultural products of lasting value (opera, ballet)

• Low culture (a derogatory term) is the popular culture with mass appeal, deemed to be lower quality and enjoyed by the masses (soap operas, football)

• High culture is deemed as superior and beneficial but it struggles to make money due to its smaller audience. So it’s subsidised by the government (e.g through the national lottery), so there’s an argument about whether taxpayers are funding arts for themselves or just the elite

Popular culture

• a less derogatory term for mass/ low culture

• This refers to products that are consumed by the majority of society

• Slightly different from mass culture, as it suggests people play an active role rather than being a passive consumer

Global culture

• postmodernists argue we have a culture that has been impacted by globalisation, so its multicultural, diverse and driven by technology

• This can be seen positively, as the world becomes more interconnected

• But it can be negative as it leads to a loss of independent culture as it becomes more homogenised

Functionalist views

• culture is the social glue that keeps society together and maintains social order. Through shared norms and values

• This occurs through socialisation

• The most important thing about culture is consensus, they all share a collective consciousness. This makes sure society functions (Durkheim)

Evaluation

• Marxists and feminists would argue there isnt a consensus that helps society function effectively for everyone

• Marxists would argue that mass or popular culture work on behalf of capitalism in order to create a passive working class

• Postmodernists would argue that culture is diverse, so there isnt a consensus

Marxist and neo-Marxist views

• culture works on behalf of the ruling class in order to sustain the capitalist system

• Adorno argues that mass culture creates false needs, leading to consumerism. This is done through advertising

• Marx also argued that advertising projects what is ‘normal’, leading to commodity fetishism

• The media encourages the working class to accept their fate, e.g through the national lottery. People are encouraged to believe that their lot in life is done to luck, not exploitation or social structures

• Sugarman - deferred vs instant gratification

• So capitalist ideology is transmitted, preventing revolution

• Bourdieu explained that culture benefits the ruling class through cultural capital and habitus. The working class are limited by their habitus and their cultural capital, reproducing inequalities

• Some neo-Marxists would argue the capitalist culture is dominant but there are alternative cultures (Gramsci, hegemony)

Evaluation

• functionalists see culture as a consensus and how this is positive, helping society to function

• Functionalists see subcultures as deviant and the cause of criminality, rather than being the source of positive social change

• Feminists argue that the dominant culture benefits men rather than the ruling class

Feminists views

• the dominant/ mass culture benefits men and the patriarchy

• They focus on how popular culture stereotypes women into particular social roles, making patriarchy appear ‘normal’

• Ferguson and McRobbie found magazines promoted a traditional house wife role

• Radical feminists look at the way some cultural products promote violence against women (e.g pornography)

Evaluation

• postmodernists would argue representation of women in the media today is empowering. E.g, Madonna was once objectified by the male gaze but now she’s more in control and empowered

• Functionalists would argue that social order is a positive thing, that benefits women and men

• Postmodernists would argue culture is too diverse so people are not defined by mainstream cultural norms

Interactionist and postmodernist views

• Interactionists focus on how culture is created by the interactions between individuals, rather than from the structures of society

• Goffman - studied how individuals have developed a large number of unwritten rules

• Postmodernists focus on the idea that culture is diverse. Strinati recognises the concerns that mass culture is used to oppress. But would argue that no culture is superior to another, everything is relative

Evaluation

• Interactionist - some would argue the findings aren’t useful. They just make observations about society without being able to tell us anything more profound

• Postmodernists - problems with cultural relativism as it can excuse harmful cultural practices. E.g in certain cultures female genital mutilation is normalised, but this shouldn’t be defended because it’s simply a different culture

2.2 SOCIALISATION

What is socialisation

• socialisation = the process of learning acceptable norms and values

• Primary socialisation = Parsons, this is the first stage of socialisation. Learn particularistic values, the agents of socialisation are the parents

• Agents of socialisation = the institutions, groups or people that are responsible for teaching individuals the socially acceptable norms

• There have been studies of ‘feral children’, these are unsocialised children who have not been through the standard process of primary socialisation

• Secondary socialisation = the second stage of socialisation. Learn universalistic values, the agents of socialisation are school, religion, the media

Case study: Oxana Malaya

• when she was young her parents threw her out of the house and made her live with their dogs. After 6 years the police came to free her, but she had learnt to bark, walk on all fours, eat raw meet and sleep in a kennel. The other dogs had to be restrained because they thought one of their pack was at risk

• Shows nurture is important and that how to socialise isnt something we are born with

Functionalist views

• structural theory, complex systems work together to promote social solidarity and stability

• For this to work society needs a consensus, the consensus is achieved by socialisation

• Durkheims organic analogy - all institutions in society are connected and have a specific role, in a similar way to the human body. So for the ‘human body’ to work effectively, society must be organised through socialisation

• Durkheim anomie - when socialisation has been ineffective and theres a lack of a value consensus. Typically due to rapid social change

• Formal social control - the written rules and laws that are enforced by agents that have the power to punish

• Informal social control - rules that are enforced by agents that have the power to control behaviour outside of legal action (e.g teachers or parents). They use positive sanctions (reward for conforming to expected behaviour) or negative sanctions (punishment for going against norms, to deter)

• Merton - anticipatory socialisation. When an individual adopts the norms and values of a group before becoming a part of it. E.g person becomes emotionally and practically prepared to be a parent before having a child.

Link education

• agent of secondary socialisation

• Parsons argues that secondary socialisation is one of two main functions of education (other is meritocratic role allocation)

• This process occurs by teaching the formal and hidden curriculum

Evaluation

• Marxists - socialisation is used to maintain class inequalities. Feminists - socialisation is used to maintain the patriarchy

• Postmodernists say society is too diverse to have one set of norms and values

• Nature vs nurture. Are people born with behaviour or do they learn it

Conflict views on socialisation

Marxism

• socialisation exists, but its used to maintain the dominant ideology but socialising individuals into a false class consciousness

• They disagree with the way society is ordered, suggesting the need for rapid social change in the form of a revolution

• Althusser suggested the working class is controlled through the repressive state apparatus (police) and the ideological state apparatus (schools)

• Ideological - institutions that transmit the values of the state, reflecting the values of the ruling class. These pass on the view that capitalism is normal and inevitable and that theres no real alternative. Presenting a myth of meritocracy, that if you ‘work hard’ you’ll be rewarded

• Gramsci - hegemony, the dominance of one social group, not by force, but by shaping cultural norms and values so that the ruling classes worldview becomes ‘common sense’

Link education

• hidden curriculum teaches the dominant ideology, be quiet, follow directions. Formal curriculum teaches about kings and queens while ignoring revolutionaries

• Bowles and Gintis - correspondence between school and work. Training students to become a passive, docile workforce

• Willis - working class boys (‘the lads’) form an antischool subculture. This is to cope with the boredom of work by ‘having a laugh’

Feminists

• socialisation exists, but its used to maintain the patriarchy

• Radical feminists are similar to Marx, they argue women are brainwashed into traditional domestic roles

Ann Oakley - 4 main ways in which primary socialisation creates gender roles

1. Manipulation. Parents will encourage behaviour that is ‘normal’ for the gender of their child. E.g clothing or toys

2. Different activities. Taken to different clubs that are ‘normal’ for the gender

3. Verbal appellations. Girls rewarded for more passive/ docile behaviour ‘good girl’. Boys rewarded for cheekiness ‘boys will be boys’

4. Canalisation. Parents push children towards toys and activities that are deemed appropriate for their gender. This may also apply to careers (girls being pushed towards nursing rather than medicine)

• Secondary socialisation - the media

Evaluation

• assume people are passive

• Out of date, postmodernists would argue that we learn about Marxism in school and are encouraged to be critical. Also these are less extreme gender roles, seeing more children playing with the same toys and going into different jobs

• Nature vs nurture. Are gender norms biologically determined or a product of socialisation

Interactionist and postmodernist views

Interactionist

• people have a more active role in socialisation

• Herbert Mead agree that behaviour is learnt but people are active. Argues that in primary socialisation we imitate others, then we start to role play and develop roles for ourselves

• Goffman developed the dramaturgical approach. Social life is like playing parts on a ‘stage’, so socialisation is about learning our role and how to play the part. So socialisation is not the same for everyone, as people choose different social roles

• Goffman - resocialisation, process of tearing down and rebuilding an individuals role and sense of self to ‘become someone else’. So people can re-socialise

Postmodernists

• people are socialised into a range of cultures and roles, then they can choose

• Lyotard argues people can choose who to listen to and which cultures to be apart of, arguing people are able to resist socialisation

• In a diverse and heterogenous society we create our own cultures and values and develop hybrid identities, so socialisation is ineffective in modern society

Evaluation

• Interactionists - ignore the power of structures such as school or the media

• Postmodernists - overemphasise free will

2.3 THE SELF

Identity

• a complex concept

• The characteristics by which a person is definitively recognisable or known. How they view themselves or how others view them

• Can be split into personal and social. Personal = how the individual views themselves. Mead, the ‘I’ in ‘I and me’. Social identity = the identity that is portrayed to the outside world. Mead, the ‘me’ in ‘I and me’

• Self identity is similar to personal. It’s the perceptions we have about our abilities, status and worth. Mead and Goffman discuss the importance of this

Structuralist views

— the self is the product of social structures —

Functionalists

• identity is a product of socialisation and meritocracy

• Parsons argued people are allocated to social roles to which they are best suited, this is done through meritocracy. Ascribed → achieved status

• Davis and Moore argue this is done because of a system of unequal rewards

• Merton recognises the system is not always effective. Talks about manifest functions (Intentional) and latent functions (unintended). E.g the American dream is used to promote that the system is meritocratic and the idea of achieved status. But it increases crime and deviance (Mertons strain theory)

Marxists

• the identity and self is shaped by capitalism, keeping them in a false class consciousness

• One way is by alienation, keeping the working class divided, such as being separate from each other in production

• Eventually, workers will gain class consciousness and will have a revolution to replace capitalism with communism

Neomarxists

• Gramsci - hegemony. This allows the dominant ideology to create and transfer beliefs and values in a way that makes it seem like ‘common sense’ or as if there’s no alternative

• But there’s also organic intellectuals who can develop and lead counter-hegemony, an alternate culture to break down hegemony

• So people are slightly more active

Feminists

• gender identity is constructed by the patriarchy

• Such as Oakleys 4 main ideas in primary socialisation

• Simone De Beauvoir - women are persuaded through socialisation to see a patriarchal concept as their own identity

• Others say female identity is often based on the male gaze, this has become so embedded in culture that women see it as their own identitiy

Evaluation

• action theories would argue is assumes society is very passive. Interactionists would argue society is shaped by individuals, rather than the other way around

• Marx even said that ‘men make their own history’ showing they believe there is more agency than the theory suggests

Social action views

— society and social constructs (such as identity) are created by society —

Interactionists

• Berger and Luckmann say social constructions are created through interactions.

• So we play a role in creating identity, we develop our concept of self through learning how others see us

4 key Interactionists approaches

1. Cooleys ‘the looking glass self’

• the idea that our self image and behaviour is affected by how we think others see us

• We become the person we think others believe us to be

• Pick up on how others see us through interactions and build a sense of what’s normal through interactions

2. Becker

• a label can become our master status and be internalised. Leading to a self fulfilling prophecy

• However, people do have some agency. They may take on the label, but they can also choose to reject the label

3. Mead ‘I and me’

• this explains the difference between the self that is constructed by social interactions and the active self that can make choices

• The ‘me’ is constructed by interactions, the ‘I’ can make choices

• They interact with each other to make up the self

4. Goffman ‘dramaturgical’

• argues our identities are us ‘playing a part’, like a performance on a stage

• This is a concept of impression management - constructing how we present ourselves to others to manage their impression of us

• Says front stage is when we put on a performance (public places), backstage is where we can let our guard down (at home or on our own)

• Identifies features of a successful performance: belief in the role, presenting an idealised version to meet audience expectations, staying in character

• Role distance - the gap between our front stage and back stage performance

Postmodernists

• belief that identity is chosen by the individual

• People can accept or reject certain identities through consumption

• Even identities that might appear biologically determines can be chosen. E.g gender, sexuality, ethnicity

• Identity is not one single self, but a hybrid of many selves. We can ‘pick and mix’

• Baudrillard - identity is shaped by our behaviour as consumers. ‘We are what we buy’

Evaluation

• it lacks usefulness. Unable to identify social problems or seek a solution through social policies

• Some would argue that postmodernists ideas are cannot be separated from structures. Its based on consumerism which is determined by someone’s economic position

2.4 IDENTITY; AGE, ETHNICITY, NATIONALITY AND CLASS

1. Identity and AgeKey idea

Age is both:

• Biological (people physically age)

• Socially constructed (society gives meanings to different ages)

Different ages come with:

• expectations

• rights

• responsibilities

• stereotypes

Examples:

• driving age

• voting age

• drinking age

• retirement age

Age and Socialisation

People from different generations develop different identities because they are socialised differently.

Examples

Older generations:

• more traditional values

• more conservative voting patterns

Younger generations:

• more liberal attitudes

• more likely to support social change

Mannheim

• Generational differences come from growing up during different historical events.

• Shared experiences create a “generation identity”.

Examples:

• Brexit generation

• social media generation

Labelling and StereotypesYouth stereotypes

Young people are often represented as:

• dangerous

• lazy

• rebellious

• involved in crime

This can create:

• moral panics

• negative labels

Older people stereotypes

Older people may be seen as:

• weak

• dependent

• technologically incapable

AgeismDefinition

Discrimination based on age.

Examples:

• employers preferring younger workers

• assumptions older people are less capable

Marxist view on ageing

Marxists argue old people may be devalued because:

• they stop contributing economically

• capitalism values productivity and profit

Interactionism and Age

Age identities are shaped through interaction with others.

Goffman

People perform different roles depending on context:

• “front stage”

• “back stage”

2. Identity and EthnicityEthnicity

Ethnicity refers to:

• shared culture

• language

• religion

• traditions

• customs

• heritage

Difference between race and ethnicity

• Race = physical characteristics

• Ethnicity = cultural characteristics

Ethnicity and Identity

Ethnicity can be a major source of identity, especially for minority groups.

UK diversity

Post-WW2 immigration increased ethnic diversity in the UK.

Examples:

• Indian communities

• Jamaican communities

• Pakistani communities

Primary Socialisation and Ethnicity

Families pass on:

• language

• religion

• traditions

• values

This helps shape ethnic identity.

Examples:

• food

• clothing

• religious practices

Secondary Socialisation and Ethnicity

Schools, peers and media also shape ethnic identity.

Sewell

Studied African-Caribbean boys:

• some formed anti-school subcultures

• media and peer groups influenced identity

Generational ConflictRosemary Hill

Young ethnic minority people may experience conflict between:

• family expectations

• wider British culture

Modood

Later generations of immigrants often:

• feel more British

• combine identities

Examples:

• British Asian

• Black British

Religion and Ethnicity

Religion is often closely linked to ethnicity.

Example:

• British Muslims may identify strongly with religion as well as ethnicity.

Stuart Hall

Hall argued ethnic identities are influenced by:

• racism

• exclusion

• media stereotypes

Some minority groups develop stronger ethnic identities in response.

Hybrid Identities

Globalisation has led to mixed or hybrid identities.

Examples:

• British Asian

• Black British

People combine:

• family culture

• British culture

3. Identity and NationalityNationality

Nationality refers to belonging to a nation/state.

Examples:

• British

• French

• Irish

National Identity

National identity is created through:

• education

• media

• traditions

• national events

• sport

Examples:

• flags

• royal events

• remembrance ceremonies

Functionalist view

National identity promotes:

• social cohesion

• unity

• shared values

Parsons

Shared national values help society function smoothly.

Globalisation and National Identity

Globalisation may weaken national identity because:

• cultures mix more

• international communication increases

• migration increases

However, nationalism can also become stronger in reaction to globalisation.

Xenophobia

Fear or dislike of foreigners.

Can increase nationalism.

4. Identity and Social ClassSocial Class

Social class refers to groups with similar:

• wealth

• status

• power

Marxism and Class IdentityMarx’s two classesBourgeoisie

• ruling class

• own means of production

• exploit workers for profit

Proletariat

• working class

• sell labour for wages

False Class Consciousness

Workers may not realise they are exploited because ideology hides inequality.

Neo-MarxismBourdieu – Cultural Capital

Middle-class people possess:

• knowledge

• skills

• tastes

• behaviours

These help them succeed in education and work.

Examples:

• language style

• confidence

• familiarity with high culture

Habitus

Bourdieu:

• people develop habits and attitudes from upbringing/social class.

Bernstein – Language CodesElaborated code

• complex language

• used more by middle class

Restricted code

• simpler language

• used more by working class

Schools favour elaborated code.

Cultural Deprivation

Some sociologists argue working-class children underachieve because they lack:

• educational support

• cultural capital

Postmodernism and Class Identity

Postmodernists argue class is less important today because:

• identities are fragmented

• consumption matters more than work

• people express identity through lifestyle and choice

Examples:

• fashion

• music

• social media

Saunders

Modern society is now more meritocratic:

• class matters less

• opportunities are more equal

Harriet Bradley – Fractured Identities

Identity is made from many overlapping factors:

• class

• gender

• ethnicity

• age

No single identity is always the most important.

Key Sociologists to Remember

Important Evaluation PointsAgainst ethnicity/class being most important

• Identities are now mixed and fluid.

• Globalisation creates hybrid identities.

• People have multiple identities simultaneously.

Postmodernist evaluation

Identity today is:

• fragmented

• chosen

• based on lifestyle rather than class alone.

Possible Exam Questions10 Markers

• Analyse two ways primary socialisation affects ethnic identity.

• Analyse two criticisms of class being the most important identity.

20 Markers

• Evaluate whether ethnicity is the most important influence on identity.

• Evaluate whether social class is declining in importance.

Quick Definitions

2.5 IDENTITY: DISABILITY, GENDER, SEXUALITY

AQA A-Level Sociology – Identity, Disability, Gender & Sexuality Notes

1. Identity and DisabilityKey Idea

Disability identity is shaped by:

• social attitudes

• labelling

• discrimination

• accessibility

• media representations

Sociologists argue disability is often socially constructed rather than purely biological.

The Social Model of DisabilityShakespeare

Shakespeare argues:

• impairments are biological

• disability itself is socially created

People are disabled because society:

• excludes them

• creates barriers

• fails to provide equal access

Key idea

It is society’s inaccessibility that creates disadvantage.

Examples:

• inaccessible buildings

• lack of ramps/lifts

• poor public transport access

Media Representations of Disability

Disabled people are often represented as:

• weak

• dependent

• vulnerable

This reinforces stereotypes.

Research found disabled people are commonly shown:

• needing help

• as “abnormal”

• as inspirational exceptions

Interactionism and DisabilitySelf-fulfilling prophecy

Negative labels may shape identity and behaviour.

People may internalise labels attached to disability.

Goffman – StigmaDiscredited identity

Visible disabilities:

• wheelchair use

• physical impairments

Discreditable identity

Invisible disabilities:

• some learning difficulties

• mental health conditions

People may try to hide “discreditable” identities to avoid stigma.

Discrimination Against Disabled People

Examples:

• inaccessible parking spaces

• verbal abuse

• employment discrimination

• social exclusion

2. Identity and GenderGender

Gender refers to:

• socially constructed ideas

• expectations

• behaviours linked to masculinity/femininity

Sex vs Gender

• Sex = biological

• Gender = socially created

Gender Socialisation

Gender identities are shaped through:

• family

• school

• media

• peer groups

Canalisation

Children are encouraged toward “gender appropriate” toys.

Examples:

• dolls for girls

• cars for boys

Manipulation

Parents reward behaviour seen as appropriate for gender.

Examples:

• girls encouraged to be caring

• boys discouraged from crying

Media and Gender

Media reinforces gender stereotypes.

Examples:

• women presented as caring/sexualised

• men shown as dominant/strong

McRobbie

Magazines and media create unrealistic expectations of femininity and beauty.

Feminism and Gender IdentityMain Feminist Argument

Society is patriarchal:

• men hold more power

• women experience inequality

Liberal Feminism

Focuses on:

• equality of opportunity

• legal reform

• reducing discrimination

Examples

• equal pay

• workplace equality

Key idea

Gradual social change can improve women’s position.

Radical Feminism

Argues patriarchy is deeply rooted.

Men benefit from women’s oppression.

Key ideas

• patriarchy controls women

• gender inequality exists in all institutions

• society is male dominated

Marxist Feminism

Women are oppressed by:

• patriarchy

• capitalism

Women’s unpaid domestic labour supports capitalism.

Difference Feminism

Criticises earlier feminism for focusing mainly on white middle-class women.

Emphasises:

• race

• ethnicity

• class

• intersectionality

Postmodern Feminism

Rejects one single female identity.

Argues:

• identities are fluid

• femininity changes over time

• women experience gender differently

Waves of Feminism

MasculinityHegemonic Masculinity

Traditional dominant masculinity:

• toughness

• emotional control

• heterosexuality

• authority

Toxic Masculinity

Extreme forms of masculinity linked to:

• aggression

• sexism

• emotional suppression

Changing Masculinities

Some sociologists argue masculinity is changing:

• more emotional openness

• greater involvement in parenting

• metrosexual identities

Intersectionality

Gender interacts with:

• ethnicity

• class

• sexuality

Women experience inequality differently depending on social position.

3. Identity and SexualitySexuality

Sexual orientation refers to who people are attracted to.

Examples:

• heterosexual

• homosexual

• bisexual

Social Attitudes to Sexuality

Historically homosexuality was heavily stigmatised.

However, attitudes have become more accepting over time.

Important Legal Changes

Changing Attitudes

Support for same-sex marriage has increased significantly.

However:

• homophobia still exists

• discrimination remains

Media and Sexuality

Heterosexuality is often represented as “normal”.

Gauntlett

Media increasingly represents LGBT identities positively, but stereotypes still exist.

LGBT and Transgender Issues

There is growing recognition of:

• transgender identities

• non-binary identities

Debates continue around:

• legal rights

• gender identity

• social acceptance

Heteronormativity

The assumption that heterosexuality is normal/default.

Agents of socialisation often reinforce heterosexual norms.

Postmodernism and Sexuality

Sexual identities are increasingly:

• fluid

• diverse

• chosen

People may reject fixed labels entirely.

Links to Core Themes

These topics connect strongly to:

• socialisation

• inequality

• stratification

• identity formation

• power

Key Sociologists to Remember

Key Definitions

Evaluation PointsAgainst traditional gender identities

• Gender roles are changing.

• More women work full-time.

• Masculinity is becoming more flexible.

Against sexuality discrimination declining fully

• Homophobia still exists.

• LGBT people still face prejudice.

• Representation is improving but stereotypes remain.

Postmodernist evaluation

Identities today are:

• fragmented

• flexible

• individually chosen

Possible Exam Questions10 Markers

• Analyse two ways media influences gender identity.

• Analyse two effects of disability stigma.

20 Markers

• Evaluate whether gender is the most important influence on identity.

• Evaluate whether sexuality has become less significant in shaping identity.

2.6 IDENTITY AND ECONOMY

AQA A-Level Sociology – Identity and the Contemporary Economy Notes

1. Identity and the Contemporary EconomyKey Idea

Modern identities are increasingly shaped by:

• work

• consumption

• leisure

• globalisation

Postmodernists argue identity is now based more on:

• lifestyle

• consumer choices
  than traditional factors like class.

2. Work and IdentityTraditional Link Between Work and Identity

Historically, people strongly identified with their occupations.

Examples:

• “I am a teacher”

• “I am a lawyer”

• “I am a miner”

Jobs shaped:

• status

• lifestyle

• identity

• social class

Functionalist View

In pre-industrial society:

• occupations often passed through families

• work created stable identities

Changing Nature of WorkDecline of traditional industries

Examples:

• mining

• manufacturing

This weakens traditional class identities.

Postmodernism and Work

People are less likely to define themselves purely through work.

Reasons:

• more career changes

• flexible employment

• multiple identities

• leisure/consumption more important

Consumption and IdentityConsumption

People express identity through what they buy.

Examples:

• fashion

• music

• technology

• brands

• holidays

Consumer Culture

Businesses market products as expressions of identity.

Examples:

• luxury brands = wealth/status

• eco-products = environmental identity

Symbolic Consumption

Products carry meanings beyond practical use.

Example:
Buying designer clothes may communicate:

• status

• lifestyle

• personality

Consumer Identities and Social ClassPostmodernist View

Consumption allows people to create identities more freely.

People can “choose” identities through:

• appearance

• hobbies

• products

Marxist Criticism

Choices are limited by:

• wealth

• class inequality

Not everyone can afford luxury lifestyles.

Example

A designer handbag may signal “middle-class identity,” but only people with sufficient income can access these symbols.

3. Leisure, Lifestyle Choice and IdentityLeisure

Leisure activities help shape identity.

Examples:

• sport

• music

• gaming

• holidays

• gym culture

Lifestyle ChoicePostmodernist View

Identity is increasingly based on:

• individual choice

• lifestyle

• consumption patterns

People “construct” identities through leisure.

Examples of Lifestyle Identity

• vegan lifestyle

• fitness culture

• festival culture

• gamer identity

ConsumerismPostmodernism

Modern society is centred around consumption rather than production.

Identity is created through:

• buying

• experiences

• media participation

Clarke and Critcher

Capitalism encourages leisure and consumption because it:

• increases profit

• keeps people consuming

• promotes consumer culture

Bourdieu and LeisureCultural Capital

Access to elite leisure activities depends on:

• money

• education

• class background

Examples:

• opera

• skiing

• art galleries

Middle-class people often gain more status from leisure.

Bauman – Liquid Modernity

Identity is:

• flexible

• constantly changing

• unstable

People continually reshape identity through consumer choices.

Criticisms of Postmodernism

Critics argue:

• identity is not completely free

• class, gender and ethnicity still matter

• choices are constrained by inequality

4. Globalisation and IdentityGlobalisation

Globalisation = increasing interconnectedness between countries and cultures.

Driven by:

• technology

• media

• migration

• trade

Effects of Globalisation on IdentityCreates global culture

People around the world consume similar:

• music

• films

• fashion

• brands

Examples:

• Netflix

• TikTok

• McDonald’s

Hyperglobalists

Argue global culture is replacing local/national cultures.

Identities become:

• global

• cosmopolitan

Cultural Imperialism

Western/American culture dominates globally.

Examples:

• Hollywood

• fast food chains

• Western fashion

George Ritzer – McDonaldisation

Society increasingly values:

• efficiency

• predictability

• control

• standardisation

Global businesses spread similar cultures worldwide.

Example:
McDonald’s restaurants across countries.

GlocalisationDefinition

Global products adapt to local cultures.

Example:
McDonald’s changing menus for different countries.

Stuart Hall

Globalisation can strengthen local identities as a reaction against global culture.

People may become:

• more nationalist

• more religious

• more attached to local traditions

Globalisation and Fragmented Identities

Globalisation may create:

• hybrid identities

• mixed cultures

• fluid identities

Examples:

• British Asian identity

• global youth culture

5. Culture and Identity TodayStrinati

Modern culture blurs boundaries between:

• media

• reality

• consumption

• identity

Identity becomes shaped heavily by popular culture.

Key Themes of Contemporary Identity

Identity today is:

• fragmented

• fluid

• constantly changing

• influenced by media and consumption

Postmodernist Summary

Postmodernists argue:

• traditional identities are weakening

• people construct identities through lifestyle and consumption

• identity is chosen rather than fixed

Criticisms of Postmodernism

Critics argue:

• inequality still limits choices

• social class remains important

• identities are not entirely free

Key Sociologists to Remember

Key Definitions

Evaluation PointsArguments FOR identity being based on choice

• More freedom in lifestyle choices

• Greater diversity of identities

• Globalisation increases options

Arguments AGAINST

• Class still affects opportunities

• Wealth limits consumption choices

• Gender/ethnicity still shape identity

Possible Exam Questions10 Markers

• Analyse two ways consumption shapes identity.

• Analyse two effects of globalisation on identity.

20 Markers

• Evaluate whether leisure and consumption are now the most important influences on identity.

• Evaluate whether globalisation weakens national identities.