Motivation and Emotion

Motivation in Psychology

  • Importance of Motivation: Biological and social factors are critical in understanding what motivates behavior.
  • Basic Concepts:
    • Instincts: Innate tendencies that direct behavior.
    • Incentives: External stimuli that motivate behavior.
    • Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation:
    • Intrinsic Motivation: Engaging in behavior for personal satisfaction.
    • Extrinsic Motivation: Engaging in behavior for external rewards.

Biological Underpinnings of Motivation

  • Needs and Drives:
    • Needs are essential for survival, drives are the pressure to fulfill those needs.
    • Homeostasis: The body's attempt to maintain balanced internal conditions.

Motivational Theories

  • Drive Reduction Theory: Motivation arises from a need to reduce drives (i.e., hunger).
  • Arousal Theory: People are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal.
  • General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS):
    • Stress response model: Alarm, Resistance, Exhaustion.

Research Findings in Motivation Systems

  • Eating: Biological factors (hunger signals) and psychological factors (food cues).
  • Sex: Hormonal influences and psychological drives.
  • Social Motivation: Importance of relationships and social support.

Theories of Emotion

  • James-Lange Theory:

    • Physiological arousal precedes emotional experience.
    • Example: Heart racing leads to feeling fear.

  • Cannon-Bard Theory:

    • Emotion and physiological arousal occur simultaneously.
    • Example: Seeing a bear causes simultaneous fear and racing heart.

  • Two-Factor Theory (Schachter-Singer):

    • Emotion is based on physical arousal and cognitive labeling of that arousal.
    • Example: Context defines how arousal is labeled (e.g., scared or excited).

  • Cognitive-Mediational Theory (Lazarus):

    • Emotions result from cognitive appraisal of a situation.
    • Example: Assessing danger before feeling fear.

  • Zajonc's Theory:

    • Emotions can occur independently of cognition.
    • Example: Instantaneous fear response to a loud noise without thought.

The Role of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

  • Emotions elicit physiological responses (e.g., fight or flight).
  • Galvanic Skin Response: Measures electrical conductance that reflects emotional states.
  • Polygraph Testing: Assesses physiological changes while questioning.

Nonverbal Communication and Emotions

  • Body language conveys emotions; includes facial expressions and gestures.
  • Paul Ekman's Research on Basic Emotions:
    • Suggested seven basic emotions: sadness, fear, anger, disgust, contempt, happiness, surprise.
    • Display Rules: Cultural guidelines for emotional expression.

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

  • Emotions are linked with specific facial expressions.
  • Facial expressions can influence emotional experiences (e.g., smiling makes one feel happier).

Robert Plutchik's Emotion Wheel

  • Proposed eight primary emotions and their combinations (secondary emotions).
  • Example: Love arises from a combination of joy and acceptance.

Analyzing Emotion

  • Biological Influences: Physiological arousal and evolutionary significance.
  • Psychological Influences: Cognitive appraisal and gender differences.
  • Social-Cultural Influences:
    • Expressiveness norms and situational contexts.

Happiness and Emotional Influence

  • Spillover Effect: Emotions can influence those around us, promoting communal positive feelings.
  • Relative Deprivation: Perceptions of being worse off than others can lead to dissatisfaction and social unrest.