Chapter 27- Nixon, Ford, Carter

Chapter 27 Outline: Rights, Reaction, and Limits (1968-1980)

I. The Conservative Reaction

A. Nixon’s Domestic Policies

• Expansion of Great Society Programs   - Nixon increased funding for Medicare, Medicaid, and Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC).   - Created Supplemental Security Income (SSI), providing benefits to the poor who are aged, blind, or disabled.

• The Philadelphia Plan (1969)   - Required construction-trade unions to establish quotas for hiring black employees.   - Changed the definition of "affirmative action" to favor groups, not individuals.

• Title IX (1972)   - Prohibits sex discrimination in federally funded education programs as part of the Civil Rights Act.

• Formation of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)   - Agencies created: EPA, Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA), and Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC).   - These agencies increased federal control over businesses.

• Environmental Legislation   - The Clean Air Act (1970) and The Endangered Species Act (1973) aimed at environmental protection.

B. International Issues

1. Vietnam (1969-1972)

• Nixon's Foreign Affairs Expertise   - Implemented a policy called "Vietnamization," withdrawing 540,000 U.S. troops from South Vietnam while providing support for South Vietnamese forces to continue fighting.   - Nixon Doctrine: U.S. would honor its defense commitments but future wars should be fought by local forces without large American troop support.

• Televised Appeal to the 'Silent Majority' (November 3, 1969)   - Nixon sought support from Americans who were presumed to back the war.

• Cambodia   - Nixon ordered U.S. forces to attack enemy bases in Cambodia on April 29, 1970.   - Protests erupted, notably at Kent State University, where four students were killed by the National Guard.   - U.S. troop withdrawal from Cambodia occurred on June 29, 1970.

• 26th Amendment (1971)   - Lowered voting age to 18.

• Pentagon Papers   - A leaked Pentagon study revealed deceptions by previous administrations regarding the Vietnam War.

• Secret Bombing of Cambodia & My Lai (1968)   - My Lai Massacre: killing of approximately 500 unarmed villagers by U.S. soldiers, causing public outrage and disillusionment about the war.

2. China

• Communist Powers' Tensions   - Soviet Union and China had differing interpretations of Marxism, which Nixon and Kissinger leveraged to gain diplomatic advantages.

• Nixon’s Visit to China (1972)   - Important step in improving U.S.-China relations.

3. The Soviet Union

• Leonid Brezhnev   - More conservative leader compared to Khrushchev.

• Détente (May 1972)   - Nixon negotiated détente to ease U.S.-Soviet tensions.   - The U.S. agreed to sell at least $750 million worth of agricultural products to the Soviets.   - Arms Control Agreements:     1. Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty: limited both the U.S. and Soviet Union to two clusters of defensive missiles.     2. Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT): froze the number of long-range nuclear missiles for five years.

4. The Middle East

• U.S.-Israel Relations during Yom Kippur War (1973)   - U.S. support helped Israel win against Syria and Egypt, who sought to regain lost territory from the Six-Day War.   - Resulted in an oil embargo by Arab nations (OPEC) against the U.S.   - Response included a 55 MPG speed limit and approval for oil pipeline in Alaska in 1974.

• Economic Implications of the Embargo   - The embargo triggered a global economic recession.   - OPEC lifted the embargo in 1974, but increased oil prices dramatically.

II. The War Powers Act of 1973

• Enacted in November 1973, required the president to inform Congress within 48 hours of deploying U.S. troops in foreign conflicts.

III. Social Movements

A. The Women’s Movement

• Title IX of the Education Amendments (1972)   - Prohibited sex discrimination in federally assisted educational programs.   - Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) proposed but not ratified by enough states; intended to prohibit sex discrimination by law.   - Phyllis Schlafly: Key leader against ERA.

• Roe vs. Wade (1973)   - Supreme Court case that invalidated laws banning abortion.

B. The Latino Movement

• Cesar Chavez   - Advocated for farmworkers through nonviolent means, forming the National Farm Workers Association, later named United Farm Workers (UFW).   - Led marches, boycotts, and hunger strikes to improve conditions for migrant workers.

C. American Indian Movement (AIM)

• Founding and Purpose   - Established in 1968 by Dennis Banks, Clyde Bellecourt, Eddie Benton Banai, and George Mitchell to address issues faced by displaced American Indians in urban areas.   - Goals expanded to include economic independence, cultural revitalization, protection of legal rights, tribal autonomy, and land restoration.

• Notable Protests   - Occupation of Alcatraz Island (1969-1971), march on Washington (1972), and takeover of Wounded Knee (1973) protested government Indian policy.

D. Bakke Decision (1978)

• University of California v. Bakke   - Supreme Court ruled that universities cannot favor applicants based on race; only racial quotas were invalidated.   - Justice Thurgood Marshall warned against the denial of racial preferences which could threaten civil rights movement gains.

IV. Culture Wars of the 1970s

A. Conservative Resurgence: The New Right

• Growth of the Conservative Movement   - Reaction against taxation, government regulation, welfare dependency, counter-culture, and anti-war movements.

• Rise of the Religious Right   - Founded by Reverend Jerry Falwell in 1979, the Moral Majority advocated against sexual permissiveness, abortion, feminism, and gay rights.   - Prominent leaders included Pat Robertson and Jerry Falwell.

V. Politics, Economics, and The Impact of Watergate

A. The Recessing Economy

• Stagflation of the 1970s   - Economic slowdown with rising inflation (13% by 1979), increased entry of women and teens into the workforce contributing lower wage averages.   - Decline in industries previously dominated by the U.S., like steel and automobiles, due to international competition.

B. Watergate and the End of Nixon Presidency

• Watergate Scandal (June 17, 1972)   - Burglary by members of the Republican Committee for Nixon's re-election, leading to a series of corruption revelations in Nixon's administration.   - Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned due to bribery charges; replaced by Gerald Ford.

• Senate Investigation   - Led by Senator Sam Erving; John Dean III testified about Nixon's involvement in a cover-up.

• Key Events   - Saturday Night Massacre (October 20, 1973): Nixon fired prosecutor Archibald Cox, causing resignations of the attorney general and deputy attorney general.   - Supreme Court Ruling (US v. Nixon, July 24, 1974): Ordered Nixon to submit tapes, revealing his direct involvement in the cover-up.   - Nixon Resignation (August 8, 1974): Faced pressure from within his party to resign.

C. The Ford Administration

• Challenges Faced   - Inherited stagflation and faced backlash after pardoning Nixon.   - Signed the Helsinki Accords in July 1975 to ease U.S.-Soviet tensions.

• Vietnamese Conflict   - Fall of Saigon in 1975: Vietnam unified under a communist government.

• 1976 Presidential Election   - Jimmy Carter elected.

D. The Carter Administration (1977-1981)

• Energy Crisis and Stagflation   - Inflation continued to rise; economic isolation was over as foreign influences were acknowledged.   - Proposed energy conservation legislation that lacked public support.

• Foreign Policy Initiatives   - Panama Canal Control: Agreed to return the canal to Panama by 2000.   - SALT II Agreements: Signed with the Soviet Union, but not ratified by the Senate.   - Camp David Accords (1978): Mediated peace between Israel and Egypt, resulting in territorial recognition.   - USSR Invasion of Afghanistan: Led to the end of détente and economic sanctions by the U.S.   - Iranian Hostage Crisis (November 4, 1979)     - Storming of the U.S. embassy in Tehran, resulting in hostages that were held until January 20, 1981, the day of Ronald Reagan's inauguration.