HTBMR - Thinking Scientifically & Research methods

True science incorporates rigorous scientific methods to validate and verify information.
Features of true science include:
- Systematic Empiricism: Approach based on structured observations and evidence.
- Publicly Verifiable Knowledge: Knowledge that can be independently confirmed by others.
- Replication: Ability for studies to be replicated and results verified by different researchers.
- Peer Review: The process where research is evaluated by other experts in the field before publication.
- Empirically Solvable Problems: Issues that can be answered through observation and experimentation.
Differentiates science from nonscience.

Social science is described as the "scientific study of social, cultural, psychological, economic, and political forces that guide individuals in their actions" (Hunt & Colander, 2014).
Importance of the accumulation of knowledge concerning human behavior and societal structures.
Acknowledgment that the understanding of human behavior has not always been framed through scientific approaches.

Observation: Noticing a behavior or phenomenon.
Question: Formulating a question or stating a problem based on observations.
Hypothesis Formation: Creating tentative explanations for the observations.
Hypothesis Testing: Conducting systematic, planned observations to gather data.
Conclusion: Using gathered observations to support, refute, or refine the original hypothesis.

Research Defined: The pursuit of knowledge to uncover information that is not already known, addressing gaps in current understanding.
- Quote: "Advancing the frontiers of knowledge" (Walliman, Ch. 1, pg. 7).
Research Methods: Tools and techniques used to collect, interpret, and analyze information to derive valid conclusions.
- Definition of valid: Accurately measuring the intended construct and ensuring that conclusions reflect reality.

Quantitative Research:
- Generates numerical data;
- Data analyzed through statistical methods for summary and interpretation.
Qualitative Research:
- Focuses on observations;
- Data summarized in narrative formats.
Mixed Methods:
- Combination of quantitative and qualitative approaches in a single study.

Numeric Patterns: Investigation focused on quantitative data.
Deductive Process: Research aims to test predetermined hypotheses.
Standardized Instruments: Utilization of consistent measurement tools.
Larger Samples: Often employs large, random selections of participants.
Laboratory Focus: Researchers frequently conduct experiments in controlled settings.

Descriptive Strategy: Describes characteristics or behaviors within a group using averages or percentages.
- Example: On average, local college students study 12.5 hours/week and sleep 7.2 hours/night.
Correlational Strategy: Examines relationships between two variables without implying causation.
- Example: Observed correlation between wake-up times and GPA among college students; the reason remains unexplained.
Experimental Strategy: Aims to establish cause-and-effect relationships through manipulation and control of variables.
- Example: Increasing exercise levels leads to a decrease in cholesterol levels.

Independent Variable (IV): The variable that is manipulated in the experiment.
Dependent Variable (DV): The outcome variable that is measured, which changes due to the IV's manipulation.
Extraneous Variables: Factors not being tested that may affect the DV.
Confounding Variable: An extraneous variable that varies along with the IV and could falsely influence the results.

Methods for controlling extraneous variables include:
- Holding a Variable Constant: Keeping certain variables the same across all conditions.
- Matching Variables: Ensuring that variables are equivalent across treatment conditions.
- Random Assignment: Randomly allocating subjects to different treatment groups.

Defined as a method that uses words as data, which are collected and analyzed in various ways (Braun & Clarke, 2013, p. 3).
Focuses on studying phenomena in their natural environments to interpret the meanings people assign to them (Denizen & Lincoln, 2013, p. 3).

Emphasis on understanding from participants' perspectives.
The researcher acts as the main instrument of data collection.
The research process is typically inductive, where data collection leads to the development of concepts or theories rather than confirming pre-existing hypotheses.
Outputs from studies tend to be richly descriptive.
Sample selection is generally small, targeted, and nonrandom.
A significant amount of research occurs in natural or field settings, rather than controlled environments.

Ethnography: Scientific and descriptive examination of cultural groups and practices.
Interviews: Systematic dialogues ranging from structured to casual formats.
Observations: Directly witnessing and documenting phenomena.
Documents & Artifacts: Analyzing relevant materials connected to the research subject.

Defined as structured conversations with informants varying in formality.
- Types include:
- Structured Interviews: Highly formal with predefined questions.
- Open-ended Interviews: Allow for expansive responses.
- Casual Conversations: Informal discussions aimed at gathering insights.

Semi-structured group discussions led by a moderator focusing on specific topics.
Typically involves 6-12 participants with a critical emphasis on selection criteria.

Conducted in the natural environment of the research subject.
Allows for first-hand accounts of behaviors rather than mediated perceptions.
Researcher may take on roles as either an observer or active participant.
Building rapport with subjects is essential, as is respecting their customs and practices.

In-depth explorations of distinct subjects or systems (
- Examples: A person, program, group, institution, or policy).
Aim to understand complex issues thoroughly.
Include historical analyses when relevant.
Focus can be narrow, involving extensive interviews for personal narratives.
Comparative Case Studies: Analysis contrasting multiple subjects or cases.

Integration of quantitative and qualitative methodologies in analysis.
Types include:
- Convergent: Simultaneous collection of both data types.
- Explanatory Sequential: Quantitative data collected first, followed by qualitative data to explain findings comprehensively.
- Exploratory Sequential: Qualitative data collected initially, informing subsequent quantitative surveys.