Exhaustive Review of the First World War (1914-1918)

Context and the European Great Powers

The First World War, spanning the years $1914$ to $1918$, is historically recognized by several nicknames, including "la dernière des dernières" (the last of the last) and "la grande guerre" (the Great War). During this period, the European continent was dominated by five primary powers: Angleterre (England), Allemagne (Germany), France, the Empire d'Autriche-Hongrie (Austro-Hungarian Empire), and Russie (Russia). These powers were fundamentally divided, facing significant tension on both political and economic fronts. This fragmentation continued to s'accentue (intensify) until the eventual explosion of the first global conflict.

Fundamental Causes of the First World War

The origins of the conflict are rooted in four primary areas: the rise of nationalism, regional rivalries, the arms race, and the system of alliances.

Nationalism manifested in several forms. Pangermanisme (Pan-Germanism) was a movement dedicated to unifying all the Germans of Europe under a single banner. Conversely, Panslavisme (Pan-Slavism) was a doctrine favoring the union of all Slavic ethnic groups. There was also a strong sense of the "Nationalisme des minorités," where various ethnic groups within large European empires sought their independence and emancipation. Finally, the dominant "Nationalisme anglais et français" drove the British and French to extend their domination across the global stage.

Regional rivalries added to the instability. The Guerre des Balkans (Balkan Wars) were a flashpoint, specifically the Austro-Serbian conflict. This arose because the Serbs wished to group together to give birth to a "Grande Serbie" (Greater Serbia) by integrating limitrophe regions, while the Austro-Hungarian Empire coveted those same territories. In Western Europe, the issue of Alsace Lorraine remained a source of bitterness; this territory, lost by France to Germany in the $19^{th}$ century, sat on the border between the two nations. Furthermore, colonial competition in Africa, specifically over territories such as Soudan (Sudan) and Maroc (Morocco), served as a frequent source of tension between European powers.

Military Preparation and Alliances

The lead-up to the war saw an intense "course aux armements" (arms race). Every country armed itself and mobilized its troops in preparation for a clash with its enemies. A specific "course navale" (naval race) occurred between Allemagne and the Royaume-Uni (United Kingdom) as both nations fought for control of the seas. To navigate this dangerous climate, the powers organized into two major blocs: the Triple-Alliance, consisting of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Italie; and the Triple-Entente, consisting of the Russian Empire, the United Kingdom, and France.

The Outbreak of Hostilities and the Domino Effect

The immediate spark occurred on June $28$, $1914$. The Archduke François-Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife were assassinated by a student of Serbian origin. This assassination was utilized as a pretext by the Austrian Empire to launch an attack against Serbia. Due to the "effet domino" (domino effect) caused by the system of alliances, multiple countries were dragged into the conflict despite themselves. Consequently, on July $28$, $1914$, Autriche-Hongrie officially declared war on Serbia.

Military Strategy and Life on the Front

At the onset of the war in July $1914$, the mood of mobilization was one of extreme confidence. Young men were motivated and convinced they would achieve victory and return home before Christmas (Noël). Several key military concepts define this era: an ultimatum is a definitive demand made to an opposing party; mobilization is the gathering of troops for operations; and conscription is the mandatory enrollment of citizens into the army.

In terms of tactics, the conflict began with the "guerre de mouvement" (war of movement), which utilized rapid and efficient troop displacements. Germany initiated the Plan Schlieffen, which involved invading Belgique (Belgium) to attack France's northern border while the French were preoccupied reinforcing their shared border with Germany. This maneuver destabilized the French forces and allowed the Germans to make a significant percée (breakthrough) in the north, reaching areas near Paris. However, the conflict eventually transitioned into the "guerre de tranchée" (trench warfare) or "guerre de position" (war of attrition), where soldiers lived and fought in fortified lines of trenches. The French soldiers inhabiting these trenches were famously nicknamed "Poilus."

Technological and Global Transformations

While originally predicted to last only a few months, the war endured for years. It was characterized as a global war because it involved countries and personnel from all over the world. The scale was catastrophic, involving the deaths of millions, the destruction of cities, and the ruin of national economies. By $1917$, the exhaustion of the populations was evident through widespread strikes, military mutinies, and the Révolution Bolchevique (Bolshevik Revolution). This revolution led to Russia withdrawing from the conflict in November $1917$. Meanwhile, the États-Unis (United States), having remained neutral but trading throughout the conflict, entered the war in $1917$ because German submarines began targeting their commercial ships as enemies.

Innovations in technology fundamentally altered the warfare. Uniforms evolved from the bright, uncomfortable fabrics used at the start of the war to camouflage-colored habits, and simple cloth caps were replaced with metallic helmets for protection. On the ground, "chars d'assaut" (tanks) were introduced; though they suffered from mechanical problems and were few in number, they offered protection from bullets and could cross barbed wire. Heavy artillery also played a major role, most notably the "Grosse Bertha," a massive piece of German artillery named in honor of the heiress of the Krupp industrial empire. At sea, the role of "sous-marins" (submarines) was to sink enemy supply ships; these were notoriously difficult to combat due to the absence of sonar and the lack of specialized armaments. In the air, airplanes and dirigibles moved from reconnaissance roles to active bombing and aerial interception. Pilots were romanticized as the "chevaliers de l'ère moderne" (knights of the modern era).

Chemical Warfare and the End of the War

The war saw the introduction of what were known as "armes sales" (dirty weapons), most notably "gaz moutarde" (mustard gas). The German general staff used this gas strategically to demoralize and weaken enemy troops; it was a treacherous weapon that caused severe burns even through clothing. The intensity of warfare transformed the landscape, leaving the ground with the appearance of a "lunar soil." Those veterans who survived the war with severe facial disfigurements were known as the "gueules cassées."

Fighting officially ceased with the armistice on November $11$, $1918$. However, the formal end of the war was marked by the Traité de Versailles (Treaty of Versailles), signed on June $28$, $1919$. This treaty transformed the political geography of Europe and placed heavy burdens on Germany, which had no say in its terms. Germany was declared uniquely responsible for the conflict. The territorial clauses forced Germany to cede all its colonies and amputated one-seventh ($\frac{1}{7}$) of its domestic territory. Financial clauses involved heavy reparation payments and the loss of numerous patents. Finally, the military clauses were severe: the German army was reduced to just $100,000$ men, all functional military equipment had to be surrendered to the Allies, and Germany was forbidden from purchasing military hardware, possessing submarines, large naval ships, or any war-fighting aviation.