Religion and Philosophy Study Notes

The rise of sectarian religions such as Buddhism, Jainism, Vaishnavism, and Saivism expanded India's religious landscape.
Traditional Vedic worship and pantheon faded, giving way to devotional practices centered on deities like Vishnu and Shiva.
Ceremonial worship transitioned from sacrifices to image worship; numerous temples were built for this purpose.
  - The Vedic gods became less prominent, remembered more as figures of veneration than active deities of worship.
  - Remaining Vedic rituals continued but were mostly performed by a dwindling orthodox following.
  - The Purāṇas emerged as the main religious texts replacing the older Vedic Samhitās and Brāhmaṇas, detailing devotion to Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva as the Trinity.
The Purāṇas incorporate older traditions while also reflecting newer religious ideas, including moral duties and popular practices among the populace.
While the authority of the Vedas was theoretically acknowledged, actual practice shifted towards the newer religious systems with the Purāṇas at the forefront.
New sects like Vaishnavas and Saivas reflected unique philosophies and addressed societal and ethical concerns, exampled by the Bhagavadgītā's teachings.

Hinayana Buddhism split into various sects during the Gupta period, most notably the Sarvāstivādins, Sāṁmitīyas, and Thera-vādins.
These sects focused more on academic pursuits and maintaining monasteries than on spreading doctrines, receiving support from rulers and wealthy patrons.
While Hinayana schools developed robust philosophical and academic frameworks, many writings were lost; only translations survive.

The Mahāyāna school arose, emphasizing altruism and universal salvation for all beings irrespective of monastic status.
Mahāyāna ethics highlighted the development of Bodhi-chitta (awakening thought) and commitment to the six pāramitās (perfections):
  - Dāna - Generosity
  - Sīla - Morality
  - Kshānti - Patience
  - Virya - Energy
  - Dhyāna - Meditation
  - Prajñā - Wisdom
Mahāyānists viewed self-fulfillment in a substantially different light from Hinayanists, focusing on collective salvation.
Monastic lives of Mahāyānists lacked rigid Vinaya rules but emphasized faith, selflessness, meditation, and worship of Buddhist figures.
The Mahāyāna regarded Buddha as eternal and expressed beliefs through various philosophical texts, focusing on ideals of emptiness and consciousness.
Bodhisattvas, especially Avalokitesvara and Manjushri, became highly revered figures, symbolizing compassion and wisdom, respectively.

Worship varied between emphasis on historical figures versus abstract concepts. Monastic records reflect practices and rituals developing in Buddhism.

The Sarvāstivādins spread across Northern India; the Sthavira-vādins held significant control in places like Ceylon and the Deccan.
Multiple accounts from Chinese travelers like Fa-hien and Hiuen Tsang detail the sect's geographical and doctrinal prominence during their respective periods.

Buddhism divided into four major schools: Vaibhāshika, Sautrāntika, Madhyamika, and Yogāchāra, each contributing to the philosophical landscape.
Vaibhāshika focused on Abhidharma literature and corroborated through earlier commentaries, establishing significant discussions around reality and perception.
Sautrāntika opposed certain realisms of Vaibhāshika, affirming knowledge utilization through scriptures and the significance of inference.
Madhyamika, founded by Nāgārjuna, proposed śūnyatā (emptiness) as fundamental, rejecting conventional notions of existence.
Yogāchāra emphasized consciousness as the only reality, aimed primarily at understanding mind and perception.

Jainism established itself in India by the end of the third century A.D., spreading beyond Magadha.
Divided into Svetāmbaras and Digambaras, gaining varying popularity and support, particularly among merchants and farmers.
The decline of Jainism correlates with the rise of Hinduism and the Gupta empire, which shifted patronage away from it; however, it persisted in parts of Gujarat and Maharashtra.

The Second Jain Council led to the structuring of the canon, fixing its alignment into various groups (Angas, Upāngas, etc.) and redacting the sacred writings to solve interpretative inconsistencies.
Notable texts such as Pañchāstikaya and the works of notable authors like Kundakunda began emerging more prominently in the guild of Jain literature.

Jain iconography saw the establishment of diverse representations of Jina images, reflecting the intricate nature of the faith and its doctrines.
Temples and figures displayed extensive worship of the Tirthakaras and indicated a robust artistic culture built around Jain values.

The Gupta emperors embraced and cultivated the Bhāgavata tradition, promoting Vishnu's worship and shaping the cultural narrative.
The concept of Avatāra became highly popularized during this period, establishing widespread practices aligned with various incarnations of Vishnu, as indicated through inscriptions and texts.

Lakshmi began to be recognized as the wife of Vishnu, with her worship reflecting broader socio-religious dynamics. The synthesis involved integrating local and indigenous beliefs along with traditional elements.

Vaishnavism saw the rise of diverse image types, representing Vishnu, his avatars, and associated forms often enriching temple worship practices.

Saivism enjoyed royal patronage across various domains during the Gupta period, with numerous temples dedicated to Shiva.
Poetry from prominent Tamil saints provided a foundation creating a rich tapestry of devotional literature.

Saints contributed greatly with poetry and philosophy, bridging Saivism with devotional practices against Jainism and Buddhism.

Shiva icons reflected both the emergence of complex representations and adherence to a rich tradition of artistry, reinforcing conceptions of Shiva's multidimensional nature.