Urban Patterns Study Notes
Chapter 13: Urban Patterns
Key Issues
Why do services cluster downtown?
Where are people distributed within urban areas?
Why are urban areas expanding?
Why do cities face challenges?
KI #1: Why Do Services Cluster Downtown?
CBD Land Uses
Central Business District (CBD): The heart of the downtown characterized by:
High land costs
High concentration of businesses
Major hub for transportation
Types of Services Found in CBD
Public Services:
Examples: City hall, courts, county and state agencies, museums, sporting events.
Centrally located for ease of accessibility to all residents.
Sports centers and convention centers are often downtown to stimulate commerce in the CBD.
Business Services:
Examples: Advertising agencies, banks, financial institutions, law firms.
Proximity to other service providers for businesses promotes collaboration and face-to-face meetings.
Consumer Services:
Historically, three major types of retail services clustered in a CBD:
Retailers with a high threshold (require large sales volume to break even)
Retailers with a high range of services (diverse products)
Retailers serving people who work in the CBD.
Changing shopping habits and a demographic shift towards affluent residents moving to suburbs have reduced the importance of retail in the CBD.
Why Are Urban Areas Expanding?
Defining Urban Settlements
The term city defines an urban settlement that has been legally incorporated into an independent, self-governing unit. In the U.S., such settlements may also be called a central city.
Structure of Urban Areas
An urban area consists of:
A dense core of census tracts
Densely settled suburbs
Low-density land that links dense suburbs with the core.
Types of Urban Areas by Population
Urbanized Area: An urban area with at least 50,000 inhabitants.
Urban Cluster: An urban area with a population between 2,500 and 50,000 inhabitants.
Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA)
Defined by the U.S. Bureau of the Census, measures the functional area of a city
Includes:
Urbanized area with a population of 50,000 or more
The county within which the city is located
Adjacent counties with high population density and a large percentage of residents working in the central city’s county.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas
Some adjacent MSAs overlap, forming one continuous urban complex.
Example: The Northeastern U.S. from north of Boston to south of Washington D.C., referred to as Megalopolis (Greek: "great city").
Local Government Fragmentation
Most U.S. metropolitan areas operate with a council of government, a cooperative agency of various local government representatives, aimed at planning for areas that cannot be managed by a single local government.
Definition of Megalopolis
An extensive concentration of urbanized settlement formed by the merging of several metropolitan areas, primarily applicable to the northeastern seaboard of the U.S. (Boston to Washington D.C.).
Megacities and Metacities
Megacities: Population greater than 10 million.
Metacities: Population greater than 20 million.
Predicted Megacities by 2050:
Notable growth in megacities, with an increase in significant population centers.
Examples of world's most populated cities according to the UN:
1. Tokyo, Japan: 38 million.
2. Delhi, India: 25 million.
3. Mexico City, Mumbai, São Paulo: Each around 21 million.
4. Osaka, Japan: Just above 20 million.
5. Beijing, China: Just below 20 million.
6. New York-Newark and Cairo: Around 18.5 million each.
KI #2: Where Are People Distributed Within Urban Areas?
Models of Urban Structure
Burgess Concentric Zone Model:
Created in 1923 by E.W. Burgess to explain the social group distribution in urban areas.
Suggests that a city grows outward in concentric rings:
CBD: Innermost ring focused on non-residential activities.
Zone in Transition: Area prone to replacement by CBD.
Zone of Working-Class Homes: Modest, older houses.
Zone of Better Residence: Newer, larger houses for middle-class families.
Commuter Zone: Area beyond continuous urban expansion.
Hoyt Sector Model:
Created by Homer Hoyt in 1939, suggests cities develop in sectors rather than concentric rings. Activities expand outward in wedges from the center.
Key Sectors:
Transportation and industry
Low-class residential
Middle-class residential
High-class residential
Ullman/Harris Multiple Nuclei Model:
Developed in 1945 positing that cities contain multiple centers (nuclei) that attract different activities:
Examples: Ports, universities, airports, parks.
Indicates that the CBD is losing its dominant position in urban structure.
Urban Realms
Concepts corresponding to parts of large conurbations; defined self-sufficient suburban sectors focused on their own independent CBD.
Examples: San Francisco Bay Area, Phoenix (Tempe, Scottsdale).
KI #3: Why Are Urban Areas Expanding?
Harris Peripheral Model of Urban Areas
Describes an urban area consisting of:
An inner city
Large suburban residential and business areas linked by a beltway or ring road
Nodes of consumer and business services called edge cities surround the beltway.
Initially, edge cities were residential suburbs that attracted people working in central cities.
Shopping malls and manufacturing centers have developed around these nodes over time.
Geographic Applications of Models
The models of urban structure reveal where social characteristics tend to reside.
Critics argue these models may be oversimplified and outdated.
Combined models can provide insight into community formations:
Concentric Zone Model: Newer houses in outer rings, older houses in inner rings.
Sector Model: Higher income families typically live in separate sectors from lower-income families.
Nuclei Model: Ethnic backgrounds correlate with spatial proximity in living areas.
Urban Applications Outside North America
Europe: Wealthier populations often remain in inner-city areas, contrasting with U.S. suburban trends.
Developing Countries: The wealthy populate city centers and transitional sectors, while lower-income groups often occupy suburban areas.
Stages of Cities in Developing Countries
Precolonial Cities
Predominantly rural settlements existed before European colonization, featuring few principal cities.
Examples: Tenochtitlan, a precursor to modern Mexico City.
Colonial Cities
Expansion of pre-existing cities to include administrative, military, and trade services during European colonization.
Cities Since Independence
After gaining independence, cities have become main points of change with significant immigration seeking economic opportunity.
Cities like Mexico City often retain previous century social patterns after colonial rule.
Models of City Structure in Different Regions
Southeast Asian City (McGee Model)
A generalized model illustrating land use areas:
New industrial estates, market gardening zones, high-class residential areas, government zones, and port zones.
African City (de Blij Model)
A model representing sub-Saharan African characteristics, combining colonial districts with traditional markets and township arrangements.
Urban Transportation Challenges
Motor Vehicles
Expansion of suburbs supported by the use of cars and trucks.
Cities allocate significant land area (approximately 25%) for roads and parking spaces.
Impact of multilane freeways and parking on urban landscapes.
Alternative Fuels and Their Challenges
Diesel: More efficient but must be assessed for sustainability.
Hybrid and Plug-In Vehicles: Utilize energy savings during coasting/braking.
Ethanol and Hydrogen Fuel Cells:
Potential concerns regarding their net energy output.
Public Transportation
Benefits:
Lower space requirements compared to personal vehicles
More cost-effective and energy-efficient.
Limitations:
Generally undervalued in U.S. urban planning, prioritized less than private vehicle use.
KI #4: Why Do Cities Face Challenges?
Urban Challenges and Deterioration
Filtering: The process by which large houses are divided into smaller units for low-income families, leading to decreased upkeep.
Redlining: The illegal lending practice of refusing loans in certain geographic areas, often leading to systemic neglect.
Public Housing
Development of public housing projects post-mid 20th century intended to replace substandard housing.
Many of these projects now fail to meet the needs of families, leading to poor living conditions.
Gentrification
The process whereby middle-class families move into and renovate inner-city neighborhoods, potentially displacing existing residents.
Attractiveness factors:
Architectural character
Close proximity to cultural activities
Reduced commuting times.
Socioeconomic Challenges
Underclass: A socioeconomically vulnerable population facing higher unemployment, crime rates, and educational challenges.
Characteristics of a Culture of Poverty:
A higher proportion of single-parent households
Increased drug usage.
Economic Implications
The eroding tax base due to low-income residents requiring public services but contributing insufficient tax revenue. Solutions include:
Service reductions
Raising tax revenues.
Impact of Recession: For instance, the housing market plunge in 2008 led to significant drops in property tax revenues and increased foreclosures.
Summary
Services, particularly public and business services, tend to cluster in the CBD, with some consumer services located downtown.
Three primary models illuminate urban residential distributions across various demographics.
Urban growth predominantly extends to the suburbs adjacent to older cities.
Cities grapple with numerous challenges, including physical deterioration, social issues, and economic constraints, although improvements are underway.
Gentrification is a significant urban phenomenon defined as the process whereby middle-class families move into and renovate inner-city neighborhoods, potentially displacing existing residents. This process is often driven by several attractive factors, including:
Architectural Character: Many gentrifying neighborhoods feature historic or unique buildings that appeal to newcomers.
Proximity to Cultural Activities: These areas often provide easy access to art galleries, theaters, and other cultural institutions.
Reduced Commuting Times: Those moving from suburban areas may be drawn to the shorter commutes offered by urban living.
Alongside gentrification, cities face multiple urban challenges contributing to deterioration and socioeconomic issues:
Urban Challenges and Deterioration:
Filtering: The gradual process where larger homes are divided into smaller units for low-income families, which can lead to a decline in property upkeep.
Redlining: This illegal lending practice involves denying loans to certain geographic areas, often leading to neglect and disinvestment in these communities.
Public Housing: Post-mid 20th century efforts to replace substandard housing with public housing projects often did not meet the evolving needs of families, resulting in poor living conditions.
Socioeconomic Challenges: The presence of an underclass, characterized by high unemployment rates, elevated crime rates, and educational challenges, contributes to a cycle of poverty. This underclass often showcases traits consistent with a 'Culture of Poverty', including a higher proportion of single-parent households and increased drug usage.
Economic Implications: Low-income residents may require extensive public services while contributing insufficient tax revenue, leading to an eroding tax base. Solutions to mitigate these challenges include:
Service reductions aimed at managing budget constraints.
Raising tax revenues, albeit this may be politically challenging.
For instance, the effects of the housing market plunge in 2008 on urban areas demonstrated how significant drops in property tax revenues correlated with issues like increased foreclosures and further urban decline.
Considering these factors, how do you see the role of local governments in addressing the challenges of gentrification while ensuring inclusivity for long-term residents?