4. Morphology

Leap from limited set of meaningless elements (phonemes) to open class of meaningful elements

New level of analysis:

Study of internal structure of words, segmenting them into morphemes → Smallest units of language that carry meaning (transcribed in curly brackets)

Example sound sequence /in/ in inbox (morpheme 1), independent (morpheme 2), inch (no morpheme)

→ same thing at one level, can have different function at other level

Classification of morphemes

→ Come in different types, defined by distribution

Lexical vs. grammatical in semantic terms:

• Content words → lexical meaning: concepts in extralinguistic reality

• function words → grammatical meaning: relations between linguistic expressions

→ Lexical and grammatical elements can both be contained in one-word forms

Lexical vs. grammatical in structural terms

• vocabulary: not a closed system, entirely optional with endless options

• grammar: e.g. markers for singular/plural from closed system of discrete values (grammatical category) → One of them is obligatory, choice can have implications for other choices

  → Arbritrary feature whether grammatical or lexical

Comparison other languages: In Bantu physical properties grammatically relevant, in Japanese number not a grammatical category

Lexical vs. grammatical in morphology

→ Morphemes as abstract elements of langue, physically realised by morphs: sequences of sounds in which speakers recognise meaningful elements

→ Some cases: morpheme realised by morphs of different subtypes (e.g. plural S)

• plural marker S three variants whose choce is phonologically conditioned (dependent on sound in environment)

• Complementary distribution (uses do not overlap)

• Variants of 1 morpheme distributed like that = allomorphs

Morphological processes

• minimum number of morphemes in word-form is one

• maximum number of morphemes theoretically unlimited

• Word-formation is recursive → Repeatedly applicable → Output of one morphological process can become base of another

Parts of morphological processes:

• suffixation

• prefixation

• recursion (outpt becomes base)

• conversion (word class change)

• inflection

• root

  • free lexical morpheme that remains when all affixes have been removed

  • not further analysable

• stem of a word form

  • part that remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed (-sles, - ed, -en, -ing, ‘s, -er, -est, …) (tense, number, gender, case, person)

  • can be simple (one lexical morpheme) or complex (more than one)

  • always a free from (word of the language) → Works mostly in english but not always (e.g. fungus - fungi)

Lexical Morphology

Word-formation

→ Language provides speakers with productive patterns for creating new words based on already existing ones

→ Word formation allows language to keep pace with extralinguistic changes, contributes to economy of language:

• speaker's perspective: building on already existing vocabulary less of a burden on memory

• hearer's perspective: words based on familiar patterns can always be understood

Three most productive strategies of English word-formation work with morphemes:

1. Derivation (affixation)

Prefixation (bound + free) e.g. co-author, intolerable, …

→ usuall class maintaining

Suffixation (free + bound) e.g. free - freedom, child - childish, duck- duckling)

→ typically but not always class-changing

—>Both types very common in European languages

(in other languages aldo infixation and circumfixation possible)

2. Compounding (free + free)

- Endocentric compounding (within → Snakes - Rattlesnakes)

- Exocentric compounding (heads - skinheads, Barfuß → not a type of foot bus someone is it)

- Appositional compounding (Intersection, woman doctor, she-goat, … )

- Copulative compounding (not often, pantyhose = panties + hose)

- Neoclassical compounding (e.g. aristocrat, biology,…)

• special in consisting of an initial combining form and a final combining form → two bound elements (aristocrat)

• pattern of combining bound bases imported from classical languages

→ Compunding widespread in all languages (some use linking elements in compunding (Les-e-saal)(speed-o-meter))

Compounding vs univerbation

Compunding = productive word-formation pattern, level of langue - univerbation = unsystematic, level of parole (e.g. anything)

Compounding or derivation or neither?

Morphological status can change through time e.g. cniht (boy) + had (condition) (→ Compunding) = knight + hood (→ Suffixation) but hood no longer used independently

3. Conversion (zero derivation)

• noun → verb

• verb → noun

• adjective → verb

• adjective → noun

• particle → verb

→ Very productive in English, world-class not marked by morphology

→ Any form compatible with any of open word-class

Coinage:

coinage (eponymy) = process when name of individual person, place or brand is converted into normal lexeme

Non-morphemic patterns of word-formation

→ Sometimes speakers disregard morphemic structure of existing words and operate with meaningless sounds

→ Less predictable, more like “what sounds good”

→ less common, associated with stylistic levels or semantic domains

4. Backformation

• Reversal of what speakers assume was earlier process of derivation (e.g. to baby-sit <- baby-sitter)

• creates new word by restoring base that never existed

• difficult to diagnose, speakers cannot be expected to know which word was formed first

5. Clipping

• cutting away sounds or letters at beginning/end or both (e.g. app, gym, fridge)

• can be phonologically modified (bycicle, bike)

• does not respect morpheme boundaries of original word, results become morpheme in its own right

• often at first less formal but can eventually become neutral term

6. Blending

• Playful fusion of two words (combining first sounds of one with last sounds of other words) e.g. brunch

• mostly Iconicity: similarity between form and meaning

• Splinters extracted from popular blens can become productive morphemes (work+alcoholic → workaholic, foodaholic, …)

7. Acronymy

• Abbreviation pronounced as words e.g. Lol, Aids, asap

8. Alpahbetism

• Abbreviation pronounced letter by letter e.g. USA, FBI

9. Word-manufacture

• invention of new word without any base in existing vocabulary

• tho also not entirely free

• has to follow basic phonotactic rules to be pronounceable

• will be influenced by associations andd sound-symbolism