The election of 1968 was marked by the assassination of Robert F. Kennedy (RFK).
It was a three-way race involving Richard Nixon (R), George Wallace (I), and Hubert Humphrey (D).
Democratic National Convention in Chicago
Hubert Humphrey was nominated as the Democratic candidate during the DNC.
Humphrey was the Vice President under Lyndon Baines Johnson (LBJ) and endorsed his policies.
The convention experienced significant unrest with anti-war protests leading to police intervention, which was dubbed a "police riot" broadcasted live on television.
White Backlash and George Wallace
George Wallace capitalized on the frustration of white citizens regarding desegregation, anti-war protests, and race riots.
He was critical of the two-party system and ran as an independent candidate.
Richard Nixon's Political Comeback
Richard Nixon had previously lost his bid for governor in California in 1962, leading many to believe his political career was over.
By 1968, he reclaimed prominence and became the Republican nominee for president.
Election Results
Richard Nixon won the presidency.
The popular vote was close, but he achieved a significant victory in the electoral college.
Richard Nixon’s Foreign Policy
Domestic Isolation
Nixon promised national unity but found himself isolated in the White House.
Focus on Foreign Affairs
Nixon prioritized foreign policy, seeking to ease Cold War tensions.
Vietnam War
Over 500,000 U.S. troops were stationed in Vietnam at the beginning of Nixon's term.
Nixon aimed to decrease U.S. involvement while maintaining a strong image, coining the phrase "peace with honor."
Vietnamization
"Vietnamization" entailed the gradual withdrawal of U.S. forces while providing money, weapons, and training to South Vietnam.
As a result, nearly all U.S. troops were removed between 1969-1972.
Nixon Doctrine
Nixon asserted that future Asian allies would receive U.S. support without deploying U.S. ground forces.
Opposition to Nixon’s Policies
Although troop withdrawals quieted protests, Nixon escalated the war by expanding operations into Cambodia in April 1970.
A significant nationwide protest erupted following this decision.
My Lai Massacre and Pentagon Papers
The My Lai massacre revealed atrocities against Vietnamese civilians.
The Pentagon Papers, leaked by Daniel Ellsberg, exposed government deceptions surrounding the Vietnam War.
Peace Talks and Bombing Attacks
Nixon held secret peace negotiations with North Vietnam, but military action escalated when talks failed.
A series of bombing raids pressured North Vietnam to agree to an armistice, resulting in U.S. withdrawal and the subsequent Paris Accords of 1973, which promised peace but did not stop the conflict between the North and South.
Nixon's Foreign Policy Successes
Detente
Nixon improved U.S. relations with China, utilizing the rivalry between China and the USSR to strengthen U.S. diplomacy.
Visit to China
Nixon visited Beijing in 1972, meeting Mao Zedong, leading to improved diplomatic relations.
Arms Control with the USSR
Nixon's overture to China pressured the USSR into negotiations, culminating in SALT I, which limited ballistic missile numbers.
Nixon’s Domestic Policy
New Federalism
Nixon's New Federalism strategy aimed to decentralize power by shifting authority from federal to state governments, involving federal revenue sharing.
Economic Challenges
Early 1970s faced stagflation: high inflation coupled with unemployment.
Nixon initially cut federal spending, then resorted to deficit spending to stimulate the economy.
He imposed a wage and price freeze in 1971 to combat inflation.
Decided to abandon the gold standard, allowing currency devaluation.
Legislation and Social Policies
Title IX (1972) banned sex discrimination in federally funded educational programs.
The Southern Strategy
Nixon's strategy aimed to appeal to White Southerners opposed to civil rights initiatives by invoking a "silent majority" among Southern whites and blue-collar voters.
He slowed desegregation efforts and confronted anti-war protests through Vice President Spiro Agnew.
The Burger Court
Chief Justice Warren E. Burger led a more conservative Supreme Court but still made pivotal rulings, including:
Support for school busing as a means to achieve desegregation.
Limiting the death penalty.
Landmark decision in Roe v. Wade (1973), which recognized a woman's right to privacy regarding abortion.
The Election of 1972
Nixon's re-election was bolstered by foreign policy successes and a weak Democratic opposition led by George McGovern.
Nixon won an overwhelming victory, taking 49 states.
The Watergate Scandal
Initial Break-in
In June 1972, five men linked to Nixon’s re-election campaign were arrested while breaking into the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate complex.
Objectives included wiretapping and political espionage.
Cover-up Attempts
The White House's attempts to conceal involvement escalated the scandal.
Nixon's administration employed illegal tactics, leading to the formation of a group called the Plumbers to stop information leaks.
Investigations and Resignations
The Senate initiated televised hearings, leading to evidence of Nixon's involvement in the cover-up.
Nixon's secret taping system was discovered, and he faced pressures to release tapes.
Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned due to his own scandal, leading to Gerald Ford assuming vice presidency.
War Powers Act
Congress passed the War Powers Act (1973), over Nixon’s veto, mandating presidential notification to Congress within 48 hours of military action and requiring troop withdrawal within 60 days without congressional approval.
The October War and Oil Embargo
The Yom Kippur War in 1973 saw Egypt and Syria attack Israel; the U.S. supported Israel.
In retaliation, Arab nations imposed an oil embargo, leading to energy shortages, price hikes, and intensified inflation.
Nixon's Resignation
Nixon’s firing of the Watergate special prosecutor during the “Saturday Night Massacre” heightened suspicion and led to further investigations.
The Supreme Court mandated Nixon release the Watergate tapes, which ultimately confirmed his complicity.
Facing impending impeachment, Nixon resigned on August 9, 1974, making Ford the first unelected president.
Gerald Ford’s Presidency
Ford prioritized restoring public trust in government post-Watergate and managing the economy amid high inflation.
Nixon’s Pardoning
Ford granted Nixon a pardon, aiming to heal the nation but controversial, damaging Ford's popularity.
CIA Investigations
Congress scrutinized CIA abuses, identifying past involvement in foreign assassination plots.
Failure of U.S. Southeast Asia Policy
Fall of Saigon
In 1975, North Vietnam captured Saigon, ending the Vietnam War and leading to a unified communist Vietnam.
The U.S evacuated Vietnamese allies before the takeover.
Genocide in Cambodia
The Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot, executed mass killings in Cambodia, resulting in over a million deaths.
Economic Policies Under Ford
Ford's attempts to combat inflation with the "Whip Inflation Now (WIN)" campaign had minimal impact.
By the late 1970s, recession emerged, with unemployment exceeding 9%.
The Bicentennial Celebration
The U.S. celebrated its 200th anniversary in 1976, aiming to restore national pride post-Watergate and Vietnam.
The Election of 1976
Ford faced challenges, and the Republican party suffered as Watergate repercussions persisted, leading to challenges from Ronald Reagan.
Jimmy Carter, emerging from a crowded Democratic field due to dissatisfaction with the Republican party, won the election.
Jimmy Carter’s Presidency
Foreign Policy Focus
Carter prioritized human rights in his foreign policy.
Human Rights Diplomacy
Appointed Andrew Young as U.S. ambassador to the UN, actively campaigning against global human rights abuses.
Major Initiatives
Panama Canal Treaty
Negotiated a treaty to end inequities stemming from previous agreements, transitioning control to Panama by 2000 (controversial).
Camp David Accords (1978)
Facilitated peace talks between Israel and Egypt, resulting in Egypt recognizing Israel in exchange for land concessions.
Middle East and Iran Hostage Crisis
Carter faced escalating tensions in the Middle East, highlighted by the Iranian Revolution that deposed the Shah.
Islamic fundamentalists seized the U.S. embassy, taking 50 Americans hostage, emphasizing the failings of Carters presidency.
Cold War Tensions
Continued détente with China and USSR, signing SALT II, limiting nuclear arsenals, but ratification was stalled due to rising tensions post-Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.
Domestic Challenges Under Carter
Increasing Inflation
Inflation peaked at 13% in 1979 despite various attempted reforms.
Economic stagnation condemned by rising unemployment rates, leading to decline in the middle class's standard of living.
Social Changes in the 1970s
Major shifts in demographics and social structures:
Rising immigration, surpassing 25% of the population by 1990.
Growth of minority groups, notably the Hispanic population, becoming the largest minority group by 2000.
Demands for Minority Rights
Hispanic Movement
Growth of Hispanic populations and demands for civil rights, leading to increased political representation.
American Indian Movement (AIM)
Established to fortify tribal traditions and assert self-determination, achieving legislative victories.
Rise of the Environmental Movement
Major Concerns
Rising concerns over pollution and environmental degradation prompted public activism.
Landmark legislations such as the Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act established federal protections.
1980s Conservative Resurgence
Factors Driving Conservatism
Economic hardship coupled with social changes led to rising conservative engagement.
Promoting traditional values, limited government, and strong military stance as platforms.
Rise of Ronald Reagan
Election of 1980
Reagan portrayed as a champion of conservatism; faced a significant challenge from Democratic incumbent Jimmy Carter.
Reaganomics
Economic Principles
Advocated supply-side economics, arguing tax cuts would stimulate growth and investment.
Economic Recovery Act (1981) mandated major tax cuts especially benefiting high-income taxpayers.
War on Terrorism and Iraq War
Post-9/11 Foreign Policy
Increased military response towards terrorism, leading to military operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, justified under the Bush Doctrine.
Barack Obama's Presidency
Major Highlights
Implemented healthcare reforms and initiatives to stimulate economic recovery post-Great Recession.
Challenges
Domestic issues coupled with expansions overseas, particularly in conflict zones like Syria and Afghanistan.
Key Developments in the 21st Century
Immigration and Voter Rights
Ongoing debates on immigration reforms and rights of minority voters.
Economic Fluctuations
Economic stagnation and the responses to the financial crises shaped political discourse leading into the mid-2000s elections.