B & B Exam 4

  1. Define and provide examples of circadian, ultradian, and circannual rhythms.

Circadian - daily (ex. human sleep wake cycle), Ultradian - less than a day (ex. human eating cycles), Circannual - yearly (ex. migratory cycles of birds)

  1. Define Zeitgeber and give an example

Zeitgeber - environmental event that entrains biological rhythms, a time setter (ex. light resets the biological clock)

  1. What is the retinohypothalamic pathway? From what cells does it originate? Where does it terminate? How is the pineal involved and what does it produce?

The retinohypothalamic tract carries information about light changes to core cells in SCN (blue light). Originates from photosensitive retinal ganglion cells and terminates in the hypothalamus in the suprachiasmic nucleus (which is in right by optic chaism). When it is dark, the hypothalamus asks the pineal gland to produce melatonin to help us fall asleep.

  1. What is “REM” sleep?

REM is when we dream, body stops doing things like regulating temperature

  1. How do REM sleep brain waves compare to waking brain waves?

They resemble that of a person who is awake

  1. What is the major difference between the first and second halves of the night?

First half is NREM, stages 1-3 the waves get deeper and slower, and second half is REM

  1. How does sleep change across the lifespan, and what does this tell us about the likely importance of sleep for brain development?

Less REM sleep as you get older

  1. What parts of the brain play important roles in sleep?

Hypothalamus (SCN = MASTER CLOCK) and pineal gland and the reticular activating system (regulates consciousness

  1. How does the pattern of brain activation during REM sleep help explain some of the content of dreams?

Activation synthesis model which says that if you watch which parts of the brain become active while someone is dreaming what you will likely be using is the content of the dream itself

  1. You should be able to recognize the sleep disorders we discussed (ie, I give symptoms, you give diagnosis).

Sleep paralysis (sleep demons) - body is paralyzed until you wake up, Insomnia, Sleeping Beauty Syndrome - people will sleep for majority of the day, Narcolepsy - oversleeping and sleeping when you don’t mean to, Cataplexy - loss of muscle tone in response to strong emotional stimuli, Sleep Apnea

  1. Differentiate learning and memory

Learning is a change in an organisms behavior as a result of experience, Memory is the ability to recall or recognize previous experience

  1. What is an engram?

A physical trace of a memory

  1. Would LTP be more related to sensitization or habituation? What about LTD?

Habituation is to fail to respond to a stimulus after its been presented over and over, you become less sensitive to it. Sensitization is an ability to respond differently because of the way you have structured synapses. LTP = Sensitization (formation), LTD = Habituation (deletion)

  1. Describe the process of activating NMDA receptors. What is the functional result of activating NMDA receptors?

Know it needs to depolarize and have glutamate present

  1. Describe how behavior modification therapy utilizes conditioning.

Uses operant conditioning (reinforcement to encourage desired behaviors and punishment to reduce unwanted ones) and classical conditioning (creates associations to modify behavior)

  1. What is emotional therapy? How does it differ from cognitive therapy?

Emotional therapy focuses on helping process and regulate emotions while cognitive therapy focuses on thought patterns and their influence on emotions and behaviors.

  1. Describe the use of VR in therapy.

Stimulates realistic environments to treat phobias, PTSD, social anxiety

  1. How may the brains of individuals with schizophrenia develop differently?

Enlarged ventricles, reduced gray matter

  1. Which neurochemicals are associated with schizophrenia? Briefly, describe the Dopamine Theory of Schizophrenia.

Dopamine

  1. How do SSRI’s work? How do MAOI’s work?

SSRI’s increase serotonin availability and MAOI’s break down serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine.

  1. What other non-medical treatments are known to be effective for depression?

Exercise, cognitive behavioral therapy, electroconvulsive therapy

  1. What kinds of conditions are considered anxiety disorders?

Generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, phobia, OCD, PTSD

  1. What types of drugs are used to treat anxiety?

Benzodiazepines, SSRI’s, SNRI’s

  1. Which groups, ages, sexes, are at highest risk for TBI?

Teenage boys (soldiers and athletes), FRONTAL

  1. Define coup, contrecoup.

Coup - injury at the site of impact, Contrecoup - injury on the opposite side of the brain due to rebound

  1. What is CTE and what leads to the development of CTE?

Repeated head trauma

  1. What are the two kinds of stroke?

Ischemic and hemorrhagic

  1. What is MS?

Autoimmune disorder where immune system attacks myelin

  1. What is ECT? What condition can it be used to treat? What are some of the disadvantages?

Electroconvulsive therapy can be used to treat depression

  1. What is tardive dyskinesia? What type of medication might lead to this condition?

Involuntary movements caused by use of antipsychotics