American Power, World War I, and the Roaring Twenties Study Guide

  • Economic Projections and Global Perceptions:

    • French economist Louis Bosc predicted the United States would soon dominate the "universe," indicating a shift in global economic power dynamics favoring the U.S.

    • Brooks Adams characterized the nation as a "gigantic and growing empire" with immense "velocity and proportions," highlighting its rapid industrial development and expanding influence.

    • W. T. Stead, in his 1902 volume The Americanisation of the World, or the Trend of the Twentieth Century, forecasted the U.S. as the greatest of world powers due to its "exuberant energies," which were seen as a driving force for progress.

  • The Growth of the American Territorial Empire:

    • By 1900, the U.S. was a formidable empire. Acquisitions included Hawaii (1893), the Philippines, and Puerto Rico (after the Spanish-American War), along with Guam, American Samoa, and the Virgin Islands (1917). These expansions highlighted America's imperial ambitions.

    • These territories added more than 7,000,000 new subjects, although the U.S. holdings remained smaller than the global empires of Britain (300,000,000 subjects) and France (50,000,000 subjects), reflecting the competitive global context.

    • Territorial expansion also occurred within North America through Indian expropriation, strategic land purchases from European empires, and the Mexican-American War, which tripled the nation's size in the first half of the nineteenth century.

  • Industrial and Resource Dominance by 1913-1914:

    • Petroleum production accounted for 65 percent of the world's total, establishing the U.S. as a leading energy producer.

    • The U.S. produced 56 percent of the world’s copper, vital for electrical infrastructure and technological innovations.

    • Coal production stood at 39 percent, illustrating the nation's reliance on coal for energy during the industrial revolution.

    • Iron ore production reached 36 percent, crucial for steel manufacturing.

    • By 1914, the U.S. produced more than one-third (1/3) of the world's manufactured goods, dominating global markets and shaping international trade patterns.

    • Technological exports featured innovations in telephones, portable cameras, phonographs, electric street cars, automobiles, and typewriters, showcasing American ingenuity and industrial capacity.

  • Principles of American Foreign Policy and Liberal Internationalism:

    • The Open Door Policy:

    • Defined as the free flow of trade, investment, information, and culture.

    • Woodrow Wilson argued that because manufacturers insist on global markets, the flag must follow them and closed doors must be "battered down," advocating for an interventionist stance to ensure U.S. economic interests abroad.

    • The Rhetoric of Freedom:

    • Foreign policy was framed in terms of promoting liberty and democracy rather than purely tactical or strategic goals, presenting a moral justification for U.S. actions.

    • U.S. leaders perceived the nation as simultaneously a great power and the worldwide embodiment of freedom, emphasizing its role on the global stage.

    • Liberal Internationalism (Woodrow Wilson):

    • Based on the belief that economic and political progress were interdependent, Wilson advocated for U.S. engagement in international affairs.

    • The approach shifted from promoting freedom by example to actively intervening to reshape the world in the American image.

    • This often served as a convenient cover for American self-interest, paving the way for interventions framed as altruistic missions.

  • An Era of Intervention in the Western Hemisphere:

    • Frequency of Intervention:

    • Between 1901 and 1920, U.S. marines landed in Caribbean countries more than 20 times to secure stable access to goods (such as bananas and sugar) and ensure loan repayments to American bankers, indicating a trend of military interventionism to protect U.S. financial interests.

    • Theodore Roosevelt's Foreign Policy:

    • Divided the world into "civilized" and "uncivilized" nations, justifying a paternalistic approach to foreign policy.

    • Maintained the proverb: "Speak softly and carry a big stick," emphasizing diplomacy supported by military strength.

    • Played a key role in settling the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), an effort that earned him the Nobel Peace Prize, positioning the U.S. as a mediator in global conflicts.

    • The Panama Canal:

    • Roosevelt engineered Panama's separation from Colombia in 1903 after Colombia's refusal to cede land for canal construction, showcasing U.S. strategic interests in controlling vital trade routes.

    • Philippe Bunau-Varilla, representing the Panama Canal Company, led the uprising against Colombia; U.S. naval forces prevented Colombian suppression, illustrating American military influence.

    • The Panama Canal Zone was a 10-mile-wide strip granted to the U.S., symbolizing American imperial reach.

    • Construction involved 60,000 workers, primarily from Barbados and Jamaica, while U.S. segregation policies ensured that white Americans held preferred employment positions.

    • Completed in 1914, the canal drastically reduced sea voyages between U.S. coasts by 8,000 miles, enhancing trade but imposing significant costs on the local population.

    • Control of the canal was returned to Panama in 2000 through treaties negotiated by Jimmy Carter in 1977, marking a significant shift in U.S.-Panama relations.

    • The Roosevelt Corollary:

    • An addition to the Monroe Doctrine claiming "international police power" in the Western Hemisphere, reinforcing U.S. influence in Latin America.

    • In 1904, the U.S. seized Dominican Republic customs houses to ensure repayment of debts owed to American creditors, illustrating a willingness to intervene directly in regional politics.

    • In 1906, Roosevelt dispatched troops to Cuba to oversee elections, maintaining a military presence until 1909 to stabilize the region.

    • Dollar Diplomacy (William Howard Taft):

    • Emphasized economic investment and loans over direct military intervention, reflecting a gentler form of imperialism.

    • Implemented primarily in Honduras, Nicaragua, the Dominican Republic, and Liberia, seeking to promote American investments while controlling political outcomes through financial means.

  • Moral Imperialism and the Mexican Revolution:

    • Woodrow Wilson's Approach:

    • Although Wilson repudiated Dollar Diplomacy, he adopted a form of "Moral Imperialism," underlining a belief that spreading democracy was essential to American foreign policy.

    • Wilson asserted that the export of American goods was closely tied to the dissemination of democratic ideals nationwide.

    • This approach resulted in more military interventions than his predecessors, including occupations in Haiti (1915) and the Dominican Republic (1916) under the pretext of establishing order.

    • Conflict with Mexico:

    • In 1911, Francisco Madero’s uprising led to the overthrow of long-term dictator Porfirio Diaz; however, political instability ensued.

    • Following Madero's assassination by Victoriano Huerta in 1913, Wilson intervened by landing U.S. troops at Vera Cruz in 1914, resulting in over 100 Mexican and 19 American deaths.

    • In 1916, Pancho Villa conducted a raid in Columbus, New Mexico, killing 17 Americans, prompting further military responses from the U.S.

    • Wilson dispatched 10,000 troops under General John J. Pershing into Mexico to capture Villa; this operation ultimately proved unsuccessful and strained U.S.-Mexico relations.

  • The United States and the Great War:

    • Outbreak of War (June 1914):

    • The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo by a Serbian nationalist ignited a conflict that escalated rapidly across Europe.

    • The Allies included Britain, France, Russia, and Japan, while the Central Powers were led by Germany, Austria-Hungary, and joined by the Ottoman Empire.

    • Nature of Combat:

    • World War I was marked by a brutal stalemate and trench warfare that caused devastating human losses and highlighted the destructiveness of modern industrialized combat.

    • Advanced technologies employed included submarines (U-boats), airplanes, machine guns, tanks, and poison gas, leading to unprecedented casualty rates.

    • The Battle of Verdun (1916) resulted in 600,000 deaths alone, reflecting the war's extensive toll. The overall death toll exceeded 10,000,000 soldiers and millions of civilians, emphasizing the conflict's brutality.

    • American Neutrality and Entry:

    • The sinking of the Lusitania in May 1915 by a German submarine, which resulted in 1,198 deaths (124 Americans), shifted public sentiment against Germany and contributed to calls for American involvement.

    • In response to mounting tensions, Bryan resigned as Secretary of State in protest of Wilson's aggressive stances.

    • Germany suspended submarine warfare against noncombatants in May 1916, but resumed such activities in January 1917, prompting more outrage in the U.S.

    • The Zimmermann Telegram in March 1917, revealing Germany's proposal to Mexico to regain territory lost to the U.S., was intercepted and released to the public, further inflaming American opinion against Germany.

    • Wilson formally asked Congress to declare war on April 2, 1917; the resolution passed overwhelmingly in the Senate (82-6) and the House (373-50).

    • The Fourteen Points:

    • Issued in January 1918, Wilson's Fourteen Points laid out principles for peace based on self-determination, freedom of the seas, free trade, open diplomacy, and a call for the establishment of a League of Nations aimed at preventing future conflicts.

    • Meuse-Argonne Campaign:

    • This campaign was the largest American engagement in World War I, involving 1,200,000 U.S. soldiers under General Pershing.

    • The conflict resulted in over 100,000 American casualties, contributing greatly to the decision for the German kaiser to abdicate on November 9, 1918.

    • The war officially ended on November 11, 1918, marking the armistice that concluded hostilities.

  • The War at Home and the Expansion of Government:

    • The 1918-1919 Flu Pandemic:

    • This global flu pandemic resulted in an estimated 20,000,000 to 40,000,000 deaths worldwide, with approximately 675,000 American fatalities occurring in a few short months.

    • The Anti-Mask League formed in San Francisco to protest public health measures, viewing them as violations of personal liberty during this public health crisis.

    • The Wartime State:

    • The Selective Service Act passed in May 1917, resulting in 24,000,000 men registering for the draft and expanding the military from 120,000 to 5,000,000 personnel.

    • The War Industries Board, led by Bernard Baruch, regulated industrial production and standardized specifications for goods, thereby centralizing war effort resources.

    • The Food Administration, headed by Herbert Hoover, promoted agricultural production and conservation efforts with slogans like "Food will win the war" to manage rationing effectively.

    • The War Labor Board advocated for labor rights, setting standards for minimum wage, an 8-hour workday, and supporting unionization, double the union membership during the war period.

    • Financing the war saw significant tax increases for corporations and the wealthy, with taxes rising to 60 percent for the highest earners by 1918, along with the widespread sale of Liberty bonds to fund military efforts.

    • The Propaganda War:

    • The Committee on Public Information (CPI) was established under George Creel to foster public support for the war through a robust propaganda campaign.

    • This included distributing 75,000,000 pamphlets, posters, and motion pictures to shape public opinion favorably toward the war effort.

    • Additionally, about 75,000 "Four-Minute Men" were deployed to deliver standardized pro-war speeches in public venues across the nation.

  • Woman Suffrage and Prohibition:

    • Woman Suffrage:

    • Jeannette Rankin emerged as the first woman in Congress and notably voted against U.S. entry into World War I, symbolizing the complex relationship between gender and politics during the era.

    • The National Woman's Party, led by Alice Paul, employed militant tactics such as chaining themselves to the White House and staging hunger strikes to demand voting rights for women.

    • The ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920 prohibited sex as a qualification for voting, making the U.S. the 27th country globally to extend voting rights to women.

    • Prohibition:

    • A renewed campaign targeting alcohol was framed as necessary for maintaining labor discipline and family protection amid social changes.

    • Anti-German sentiment during World War I fueled efforts against breweries, most of which were owned by German Americans.

    • The Eighteenth Amendment passed by Congress in December 1917, was ratified in 1919 and took effect in 1920, marking the start of the Prohibition era.

  • The Repression of Dissent:

    • The Espionage and Sedition Acts:

    • The Espionage Act of 1917 prohibited spying and unauthorized disclosure of information that would interfere with military success.

    • The Sedition Act of 1918 made it a crime to make spoken or printed statements casting disdain on the government or war effort, significantly curbing free speech during wartime.

    • Approximately 2,000 individuals were charged under these acts, with over half being convicted; notable figure Eugene V. Debs received a ten-year sentence for an antiwar speech.

    • Schenck v. United States (1919):

    • In this landmark case, Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes upheld the Espionage Act, establishing the "clear and present danger" test, which limited free speech when it poses a significant threat to public safety.

    • The American Protective League (APL):

    • With a membership of roughly 250,000, the APL aided the Justice Department in identifying radicals and facilitating "slacker raids" to root out potential dissidents.

  • Race and Americanization:

    • The Science of Eugenics:

    • The Dictionary of Races of Peoples (1911) cataloged 45 immigrant races, reflecting the societal anxieties surrounding immigration and race.

    • Madison Grant's The Passing of the Great Race (1916) warned against the dangers posed by new immigrants, pushing for restrictive policies.

    • In Buck v. Bell (1927), the Supreme Court upheld the practice of involuntary sterilization, marking a dark chapter in American social policy, with Justice Holmes declaring that "Three generations of imbeciles are enough,” leading to 63,000 sterilizations by the 1960s.

    • Americanization Programs:

    • Israel Zangwill's play The Melting Pot (1908) popularized the narrative of immigrants blending into American society, underlying the pressures of cultural assimilation.

    • The Ford Motor Company implemented sociological programs assessing workers' homes and English language skills, demonstrating corporate involvement in social policy.

    • The Anti-German Crusade:

    • Following America's entry into the World War I, various states imposed restrictions on German-language teaching, manifesting anti-German sentiment.

    • Cultural elements such as "hamburgers" were renamed "liberty sandwiches" and "sauerkraut" became "liberty cabbage" to align with wartime patriotic sentiments.

  • The Color Line and the Great Migration:

    • Black Protest and W. E. B. Du Bois:

    • In his seminal work The Souls of Black Folk (1903), Du Bois urged the "talented tenth" to take on leadership and challenge social inequality.

    • The Niagara Movement (1905) aimed at addressing civil rights issues led directly to the establishment of the NAACP in 1909, symbolizing the rise of organized Black activism.

    • The Great Migration:

    • Between 1910 and 1920, approximately 500,000 African Americans migrated northward, seeking industrial jobs and greater voting rights, marking a pivotal demographic shift.

    • Cities like Chicago experienced significant population increases, with the Black population more than doubling, while Detroit saw a staggering rise of 611 percent in its Black populace.

    • Racial Terrorism:

    • Racial tensions erupted into violence during events like the East St. Louis riots (1917) and the Chicago riots (1919), which resulted in 38 deaths and were fueled by competition for housing and jobs.

    • The Tulsa Massacre (1921) devastated the Greenwood District, known as "Negro Wall Street," with hundreds dead and thousands left homeless, showcasing the extreme racial violence of the era.

    • Marcus Garvey and Garveyism:

    • The Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), founded by Marcus Garvey, aimed to promote Black self-reliance, economic independence, and a sense of racial pride.

    • Garvey's eventual conviction for mail fraud and subsequent deportation in 1927 highlighted the tensions surrounding Black leaders and movements during this time.

  • The Post-War Year of Upheaval (1919):

    • Global Revolution:

    • The aftershocks of the Russian Revolution under Lenin reverberated worldwide, leading to widespread strikes and unrest in cities such as Belfast, Glasgow, and Winnipeg.

    • Allied intervention in Russia, lasting from 1918 to 1920, reflected the fears of spreading communism among Western powers.

    • American Turmoil:

    • A staggering 4,000,000 workers participated in strikes across the country in 1919, driven by demands for better wages and working conditions.

    • The Great Steel Strike involved 365,000 workers uniting for recognition of unions and an 8-hour workday but was suppressed through propaganda that associated strikers with communism.

    • The Red Scare (1919-1920):

    • The Palmer Raids, led by Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer and implemented by J. Edgar Hoover, resulted in the arrest of over 5,000 citizens without warrants in the fears of radicalism, notably targeting communist sympathizers.

    • The deportation of notable figures such as Emma Goldman reflected the intense dedication to quelling dissent during this era.

  • The Treaty of Versailles and the Failure of Peace:

    • Versailles Treaty Terms:

    • The Treaty established the League of Nations as a means to ensure future peace and cooperation, though many viewed its effectiveness skeptically.

    • The geopolitical map of Europe was redrawn significantly, giving rise to countries like Finland, Poland, and Czechoslovakia.

    • Germany was compelled to accept full responsibility for the war and pay reparations estimated between $33 billion and $56 billion, which would sow seeds of resentment in the nation.

    • The Wilsonian Moment and Its Collapse:

    • Key figures like Ho Chi Minh (then Nguyen That Thanh) and Du Bois sought self-determination at Versailles but were dismissed, illustrating the limitations of Wilson's international vision.

    • The League of Nations endorsed a system of "mandates" that allowed Britain and France to control former Ottoman and German territories, deepening colonialism under the guise of governance.

    • The Senate Rejection:

    • Senator Henry Cabot Lodge spearheaded opposition to the League of Nations in the Senate, reflecting bipartisan reluctance to engage in international commitments.

    • Wilson suffered a debilitating stroke in October 1919, hindering his ability to rally support; subsequently, the Senate rejected the treaty decisively in November 1919 and again in March 1920.

  • The Twenties: Business, Culture, and Politics:

    • Economic Growth:

    • The economic boom of the twenties saw automobile production triple to 4,800,000 units annually by 1929, with half of American families owning cars, indicating the Industrial Revolution's impact on daily life.

    • The U.S. emerged as a multinational power, producing 85 percent of the world's automobiles and accounting for 40 percent of manufactured goods globally.

    • The consumer society flourished, characterized by installment buying (credit), with radio ownership reaching 5,000,000 homes by 1929.

    • The Limits of Prosperity:

    • The wealthiest 5 percent held more income than the bottom 60 percent, revealing significant economic disparities.

    • An agricultural depression hit hard, with incomes for farmers declining, leading to severe land foreclosures; in Montana alone, half the farmers lost their land between 1921 and 1925.

    • The Sacco-Vanzetti Case (1921-1927):

    • Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, Italian anarchist immigrants, were convicted of robbery and murder based on flimsy evidence, ultimately executed in 1927, highlighting fears surrounding immigration and political dissent.

    • Republican Era and Corruption:

    • The Harding and Coolidge administrations were marked by corruption scandals, notably the Teapot Dome Scandal, where Albert Fall (Secretary of Interior) was convicted for leasing navy oil reserves to private interests for kickbacks.

  • Culture Wars and the Birth of Civil Liberties:

    • Civil Liberties:

    • The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) was established in 1920, aiming to defend and preserve individual rights guaranteed by the Constitution.

    • In Meyer v. Nebraska (1923), the Supreme Court struck down laws prohibiting foreign-language teaching, recognizing rights pertaining to marriage and child-rearing under the 14th Amendment.

    • Fundamentalism vs. Modernism:

    • The Scopes Trial (1925) centered on John Scopes's arrest for teaching evolution in Tennessee, pitting modernist views against fundamentalist perspectives in a highly publicized courtroom battle featuring Clarence Darrow and William Jennings Bryan.

    • Scopes was found guilty, although the technicality later led to the case being overturned, symbolizing the era's cultural conflict over science versus religion.

    • The Second Ku Klux Klan:

    • Reborn in 1915, the Klan claimed membership numbers between 3,000,000 and 5,000,000 by the mid-1920s, targeting African Americans, Catholics, Jews, immigrants, and anyone deemed un-American.

    • Immigration Restriction:

    • The Immigration Act of 1924 epitomized this era's xenophobia, limiting European immigration to 150,000 per year and effectively barring all Asians (with exceptions for Filipinos), creating an "illegal alien" status and establishing the Border Patrol.

    • Harlem Renaissance:

    • This cultural movement celebrated the talents of Black artists, writers, and musicians, introducing figures like Countee Cullen, Langston Hughes, and Claude McKay, who influenced American culture and identity profoundly.

  • The Great Depression:

    • The Crash:

    • Black Tuesday (October 29, 1929) marked the stock market crash, leading to an astonishing $10,000,000,000 in market value evaporating within five hours, signaling the onset of a severe economic downturn.

    • Economic Depth:

    • By 1932, the Gross National Product (GNP) fell by one-third (1/3) compared to pre-crash levels, demonstrating the deep economic damage.

    • Unemployment soared to 25 percent, translating to approximately 11,000,000 people without jobs.

    • U.S. Steel saw a dramatic drop in full-time employment from 225,000 in 1929 to zero by the end of 1932, encapsulating the devastation of major industries.

    • Hoover's Response:

    • President Hoover initially placed his faith in "associational action" and local charities to assist the struggling population, expressing resistance to direct federal relief measures.

    • The Mexican Repatriation program forcibly relocated approximately 400,000 individuals, including 200,000 U.S.-born children of Mexican descent, amidst economic pressures.

    • The Reconstruction Finance Corporation and Federal Home Loan Bank System, established in 1932, were belated attempts to intervene in the failing economy.

    • Protest:

    • The Bonus Army March in 1932 witnessed around 20,000 World War I veterans descending on Washington, D.C., demanding immediate payment of bonuses promised to them. The federal response led by Douglas MacArthur aggressively dispersed the protestors, generating public outcry against the government.