2.3.1Study: The Spanish-American War

By 1898, the Spanish Empire had significantly reduced in size compared to its state in the 1700s.
The Monroe Doctrine (1823) aimed to keep European powers out of American affairs.
By the late 1800s, the United States sought to increase its influence in Latin America and the Caribbean.
The contrast between the shrinking Spanish Empire and the expansive British Empire, where the "sun never set," heightened American ambitions for empire-building.

Influenced by military thinkers like Alfred T. Mahan, the belief arose that control of the seas was crucial for national power.
The U.S. needed to establish naval bases worldwide, particularly in the Pacific and East Asia.

American politicians and businessmen sought access to natural resources and markets, aiming for economic expansion on a global scale.

Many Americans felt a moral obligation to introduce Western culture and Christianity to colonized peoples to elevate their civilizations.

Cuba had been a Spanish colony since Columbus's time, primarily producing sugar, which was its main cash crop.
In the 1800s, declining sugar prices severely affected Cuba's economy, leading to a power struggle among American business interests that sought control of its sugar production.
José Martí emerged as a significant figure in Cuban independence, advocating for the Cuba Libre movement from exile in New York.
Marti’s death in 1895 did not quell the independence movement; it continued under the rallying cry "Independence or Death."

By 1898, events in Cuba generated substantial media coverage in the U.S., stirring public opinion and a desire for intervention.
Reports of Spanish atrocities, such as the mistreatment of Cubans in concentration camps, fueled American outrage.
Yellow Journalism:
- Media figures like William Randolph Hearst (New York Journal) and Joseph Pulitzer (New York World) sensationalized reports, aiming to increase newspaper sales through exaggerated stories.
- Example: False narratives about Spanish treatment of Cuban women exacerbated American sentiments against Spain.

Not all Americans supported war; voices like the Anti-Imperialist League (founded in 1898) argued against intervention in foreign conflicts.
Notable members included Andrew Carnegie, Mark Twain, and Jane Addams.
The League's opposition stemmed from the belief that war contradicted American democratic ideals and raised concerns over race and governance for non-white populations.
The League took political action by supporting Democratic candidate William Jennings Bryan against President William McKinley.

Events leading to the Spanish-American War were dramatically intensified by the explosion of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor on February 5, 1898, killing 258 Americans.
The American press claimed Spain was responsible, further inciting calls for war with offers of a $50,000 reward for proof against Spain.

The public's outrage over the sinking of the Maine contributed significantly to growing support for intervention against Spain.

On April 1898, President McKinley, under public pressure, asked Congress for a declaration of war.
Commodore George Dewey commanded American forces that attacked the Spanish fleet in the Philippines, achieving a decisive victory at the Battle of Manila Bay.
The U.S. Navy's success allowed for the blockade and subsequent occupation of the Philippines.
Filipino independence fighters allied with American forces during these operations.

Theodore Roosevelt led the Rough Riders, a group of volunteers, supported by African American regiments.
Notable battles included the Battle of San Juan Hill, contributing to American victory in Cuba.
Puerto Rico was also quickly claimed by American forces, with some Puerto Ricans supporting the invasion.
The Spanish defeat led to a peace treaty.

Signed on December 10, 1898, the treaty established the terms of Spain's surrender.
America gained Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, while Spain recognized Cuban independence (albeit under U.S. military occupation).
Negotiations excluded native leaders from the colonies seeking independence.
The decision regarding the Philippines sparked debates between proponents of independence and those favoring annexation.

Issued shortly after gaining control of the Philippines, this proclamation misleadingly suggested a gentle integration of Filipinos into American society but threatened force against resistance.
Filipinos engaged in their own independence movements, led by Emilio Aguinaldo, who became the first president of the Philippine Republic.
Conflict escalated to war on February 4, 1899, with harsh U.S. military responses, including forced internment of civilian supporters of Aguinaldo.
Aguinaldo's capture in March 1901 marked a turning point, but resistance continued until 1913.

The U.S. retained significant influence over Cuba, embedding American interests into the new Cuban constitution.
The Platt Amendment was integrated into Cuba's constitution in 1901, stipulating:
- Establishment of a U.S. naval base at Guantanamo Bay.
- Prohibition against Cuba borrowing money from any entity other than the U.S.
- Acceptance of U.S. military laws by Cuba.
This effectively gave the United States considerable control over Cuban affairs.

Victory in the Spanish-American War solidified the United States' emergence as a global power, with military bases and economic markets extending from the Caribbean to East Asia.
The conflict marked a significant turning point in the U.S. as a colonial power and its influence in international affairs.