Comprehensive Language Proficiency Study Guide: English Grammar, Vocabulary, Analogy, & Filipino Balarila

Overview of Language Proficiency Test Domains

• College Entrance Tests (CETs) systematically assess verbal skills, reading comprehension, vocabulary, syntactic accuracy, and grammatical correctness across English and Filipino.

• Key exam question formats include:

  • Identifying Errors

  • Word Meaning (Synonyms and Antonyms)

  • Confusing Words

  • Sentence Completion

  • Spelling

  • Analogy

  • Sentence Arrangement

  • Parts of Speech

Sentence Error Identification Strategies

• Step 1: Check Sentence Basics

  • Locate subject(s) and verb(s) to verify if the sentence is complete.

  • Ensure verbs are properly formed.

  • Confirm standard sentence order: Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object.

• Step 2: Check for Agreement

  • Verify Subject-Verb Agreement (singular subjects with singular verbs; plural subjects with plural verbs).

  • Verify Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement (number, person, gender).

• Step 3: Check for Consistency

  • Ensure verb tenses remain consistent throughout a complete thought.

  • Maintain uniform pronoun perspective.

• Step 4: Check Sentence Structure

  • Verify parallel structure in lists and linked clauses.

  • Position modifiers directly adjacent to the words they modify.

• Step 5: Check for Concision

  • Eliminate redundant phrasing or unnecessary wordiness.

• Step 6: Check Mechanics & Phrasing

  • Check spelling, punctuation, capitalization, and idiom accuracy.

Sample Error Identification Problem

• Sentence: "Neither of the plans seem effective enough to address the issue without substantial modifications. No Error."

  • Segment A: Neither of

  • Segment B: seem

  • Segment C: effective enough

  • Segment D: without substantial modifications

  • Segment E: No Error

  • Analysis: "Neither" is a singular indefinite pronoun when used as a subject, requiring the singular verb "seems".

  • Correct Answer: Option B (replace "seem" with "seems").

English Vocabulary and Word Relationships

• Synonym: A word having the same or nearly the same meaning as another word.

• Antonym: A word having the opposite meaning of another word.

Exemplary Synonym Problems

• Problem 1: "The event was held to honor journalists for their exemplary service."

  • Options: A. cautionary, B. commendable, C. prolific, D. fraudulent

  • Correct Answer: B. commendable (exemplary means worthy of imitation or praise).

• Problem 2: "He bellowed in a stentorian voice."

  • Options: A. violent, B. misbegotten, C. loud, D. stealthy

  • Correct Answer: C. loud (stentorian means extremely loud and powerful).

• Problem 3: "malodorous aroma"

  • Options: A. pungent, B. fragrant, C. delicious, D. scented

  • Correct Answer: A. pungent (malodorous means smelling very unpleasant).

• Problem 4: "a debonair young man"

  • Options: A. naive, B. unsophisticated, C. good-natured, D. innocent

  • Correct Answer: C. good-natured (debonair means confident, stylish, and charming/good-natured).

Exemplary Antonym Problems

• Problem 1: "Rather than being a lugubrious occasion, death should also be a celebration of life."

  • Options: A. mournful, B. harmful, C. festive, D. tedious

  • Correct Answer: C. festive (lugubrious means looking or feeling sad and dismal; its opposite is festive).

• Problem 2: "a very amenable child"

  • Options: A. acquiescent, B. docile, C. intransigent, D. flexible

  • Correct Answer: C. intransigent (amenable means open and responsive to suggestion or easily persuaded; intransigent means unwilling or refusing to change one's views or to agree).

• Problem 3: "The Philippine government had thwarted a coup attempt."

  • Options: A. confirm, B. prevented, C. hamper, D. obstruct

  • Correct Answer: A. confirm (thwart means to prevent someone from accomplishing something or to obstruct; the opposite concept among choices is confirm).

Analogy Mechanics and Taxonomy

• Definition: An analogy expresses a logical connection, described as "blank is to blank as blank is to blank" ($A : B :: C : D$).

• Core Solving Technique: Define the exact relationship between the given pair of words, then select the option that replicates that identical relationship.

Exemplary Analogy Problems

• Problem 1: ephemeral : permanent :: abundance : \_\_\_\_\_

  • Options: A. plethora, B. excess, C. scarcity, D. profusion, E. frugality

  • Relationship: Antonyms (ephemeral is the opposite of permanent).

  • Correct Answer: C. scarcity (scarcity is the opposite of abundance).

• Problem 2: cub : bear :: \_\_\_\_\_ : horse

  • Options: A. cub, B. leveret, C. foal, D. fawn

  • Relationship: Offspring to adult animal.

  • Correct Answer: C. foal (a young horse is a foal).

• Problem 3: Manila : Philippines :: \_\_\_\_\_ : Iran

  • Options: A. Istanbul, B. Tehran, C. Paris, D. Lyon

  • Relationship: Capital city to country.

  • Correct Answer: B. Tehran (Tehran is the capital of Iran).

Comprehensive Taxonomy of Analogy Types

• Part to Whole: Comparing a component part to the complete entity.

  • Example: paw : dog :: claw : bird

• Type and Category: One word is a specific instance within a broader class.

  • Example: orange : citrus (An orange is a type of citrus fruit).

• Degree of Intensity: Words differ in magnitude or strength.

  • Example: shower : monsoon (A shower is light rainfall; a monsoon is heavy rainfall).

• Function: One word performs an action using or on the other.

  • Example: hammer : build :: harrow : plow

• Manner: One word specifies the manner in which an action is carried out.

  • Example: shamble : walk (Shamble means to walk awkwardly).

• Symbol or Representation: One word symbolizes an abstract concept.

  • Example: dove : peace (A dove is an emblem of peace).

• Word Knowledge and Factual Content:

  • Vocabulary-Based: miserable : poignant (synonym); miserable : joyful (antonym).

  • Fact-Based: Requires domain-specific knowledge not inferable from language structure alone. Example: iron : Fe :: silver : Ag (chemical symbols).

• Cause to Effect: Demonstrates an event leading directly to an outcome.

  • Example: drought : wildfire :: deforestation : flood

• Logic / Structural Test: Relationship based on spelling, letter patterns, or word structural manipulation rather than semantics.

  • Example: about : bout :: amend : men (removing initial/terminal letters).

• Sequence: Chronological or ordinal progression.

  • Example: Monday : Tuesday :: January : February

• Cause and Effect (Secondary Pair): earthquake : tsunami :: cavity : toothache

• Complement: Items naturally paired together to complete a unit.

  • Example: cup : saucer

• Measurement Units: Equivalent or related measurement units.

  • Example: pound : kilogram :: quart : liter

• Geography: Nation to major city or region.

  • Example: Australia : Sydney :: Philippines : Manila

• Grammatical / Verbal Tenses: Base verb form to past tense.

  • Example: eat : ate :: sit : sat

• Age / Development: Juvenile animal to adult animal.

  • Example: cub : bear :: foal : horse

• Gender: Female animal to male animal.

  • Example: doe : stag

English Commonly Confused Words

• The English language contains many homophones, near-homophones, and terms with overlapping meanings that require precise differentiation.

Key Confusing Word Pairs and Practice Exercises

• Infer vs. Imply:

  • Imply: To express, suggest, or hint at something indirectly.

  • Infer: To conclude, deduce, or derive meaning from evidence provided by others.

  • Practice Problem: "John changed his body language to _____ to the woman that he was uninterested."

  • Options: A. infer, B. imply, C. say, D. said

  • Correct Answer: B. imply

• Credible vs. Credulous vs. Creditable vs. Incredible:

  • Credible: Believable or convincing.

  • Credulous: Excessively ready to believe things; gullible.

  • Creditable: Deserving public praise or respect.

  • Incredible: Extraordinary or impossible to believe.

  • Practice Problem: "People who are _____ accept outlandish claims even if the facts point to the contrary."

  • Options: A. credible, B. credulous, C. creditable, D. incredible

  • Correct Answer: B. credulous

• Intelligible vs. Legible vs. Intelligent vs. Illegible vs. Eligible:

  • Intelligible: Able to be understood; clear.

  • Legible: Clear enough to read (handwriting/print).

  • Intelligent: Having high mental capacity.

  • Illegible: Not clear enough to read.

  • Eligible: Satisfying appropriate conditions to be chosen.

  • Practice Problem: "Although the document was long, it was surprisingly _____ to understand."

  • Options: A. legibly, B. intelligible, C. intelligent, D. illegible, E. eligible

  • Correct Answer: B. intelligible

English Grammar and Syntax Fundamentals

Parts of Speech Definitions and Examples

• Noun: Names a person, place, thing, or concept.

  • Examples: water, Byron, telephone, Main Street, tub, virtue.

• Pronoun: Replaces a noun to avoid repetitive phrasing.

  • Examples: I, you, he, she, us, they, this, that, themselves, somebody, who, which.

• Preposition: Expresses spatial, temporal, or logical relationships between words.

  • Examples: in, on, around, above, between, underneath, beside, with, upon.

• Conjunction: Connects words, phrases, or clauses and indicates their logical relation.

  • Examples: for, and, nor, but, or, comparatively, therefore, also, however, moreover.

• Verb: Expresses an action, state of being, or occurrence.

  • Examples: wait, seem, be, visit, renew.

• Helping Verb (Auxiliary Verb): Combines with main verbs to indicate tense, mood, or voice.

  • Examples: forms of be, do, have; can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would.

• Adjective: Modifies, identifies, or quantifies nouns and pronouns.

  • Examples: green, round, old, surprising, that (e.g., that elephant), several (e.g., several elephants).

• Adverb: Modifies verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or whole clauses.

  • Examples: dreamily, quickly, always, very, then.

Royal Order of Adjectives (NOSA SCOM Mnemonic)

• When multiple adjectives describe a noun, they must follow a strict grammatical sequence:

  1. N - Number / Quantity: few, many, one, several

  2. O - Opinion: delicious, lovely, horrid, beautiful

  3. S - Size: large, small, tiny, huge

  4. A - Age: young, old, new, ancient

  5. S - Shape: rectangular, circular, round, square

  6. C - Color: red, green, white, yellow, blue

  7. O - Origin: American, Chinese, French, Japanese

  8. M - Material: leather, ceramic, plastic, wooden

Subject-Verb Agreement Rules

• Singular subjects require singular verbs; plural subjects require plural verbs.

  • Incorrect: Robin want to meet us later. (Singular subject "Robin", plural verb "want")

  • Correct: Robin wants to meet us later.

  • Incorrect: He do whatever he want.

  • Correct: He does whatever he wants.

• Correlative Conjunctions Rule (Neither… nor / Either… or): Verb agrees with the subject closest to it.

  • Practice Problem: "Neither the explorer nor his companions _____ ever seen again."

  • Options: A. was, B. were, C. is, D. are, E. have

  • Analysis: Subject closer to the verb is plural ("his companions"), requiring the plural past-tense verb "were".

  • Correct Answer: B. were

Pronoun Cases and Antecedent Rules

• Subjective Case: Pronouns performing the action ($I, \text{you}, \text{he}, \text{she}, \text{we}, \text{they}, \text{who}$).

• Objective Case: Pronouns receiving the action ($\text{me}, \text{you}, \text{him}, \text{her}, \text{us}, \text{them}, \text{whom}$).

• Possessive Case: Pronouns expressing ownership ($\text{my}, \text{your}, \text{his}, \text{her}, \text{our}, \text{their}, \text{whose}$).

• Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement: A pronoun must match its antecedent in number, person, and gender.

  • Example: "Chelsey finished her presentation." ("Chelsey" is the antecedent; "her" is the matching possessive pronoun).

• Avoiding Ambiguous Pronoun References: Pronouns must point unequivocally to a single antecedent.

  • Ambiguous Example: "When Katherine and Melissa left for England, she promised to write me about all their adventures." (Unclear whether "she" refers to Katherine or Melissa).

Tense Consistency and Contractions

• Tense Agreement: Maintain uniform verb tense within a single thought or narrative timeline.

  • Incorrect: In the game of hide and seek, Kent chased Kleng and tag her from behind.

  • Correct: In the game of hide and seek, Kent chased Kleng and tagged her from behind.

• Contractions: Formed by combining words, dropping letters, and replacing missing letters with an apostrophe.

  • aren't $\rightarrow$ are not

  • there's $\rightarrow$ there is / there has

  • can't $\rightarrow$ cannot

  • they'd $\rightarrow$ they had / they would

  • couldn't $\rightarrow$ could not

  • they'll $\rightarrow$ they will / they shall

  • didn't $\rightarrow$ did not

  • they're $\rightarrow$ they are

Figures of Speech

• Figurative language employs non-literal terms to create vivid imagery or rhetorical emphasis.

• Alliteration: Repetition of initial consonant sounds in neighboring words.

  • Example: "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers."

• Allusion: Brief, indirect reference to a historical, literary, or mythological figure or event.

  • Example: "He was a modern-day Prometheus." (Reference to the titan who stole fire for humanity).

• Anaphora: Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences.

  • Example: "I came, I saw, I conquered."

• Antithesis: Direct placement of contrasting ideas within parallel grammatical structures.

  • Example: "Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country."

• Apostrophe: Addressing an absent person, abstract quality, or inanimate object directly.

  • Example: "O world, how apt the poor are to be proud!"

• Assonance: Repetition of internal vowel sounds within closely located words.

  • Example: "He fell in the well."

• Chiasmus: Reversal of grammatical structures or terms in successive clauses.

  • Example: "Ask not for whom the bell tolls; it tolls for thee."

• Epiphora (Epistrophe): Repetition of the same word or phrase at the end of successive clauses or sentences.

  • Example: "I am who I am, and I will always be who I am."

• Euphemism: Replacing a harsh, offensive, or blunt term with a mild or indirect expression.

  • Example: "He passed away" (instead of "He died").

• Hyperbole: Intentionally extreme exaggeration used for emphasis or humor.

  • Example: "I'm so hungry I could eat a horse."

• Irony: Using language signifying the opposite of the literal meaning for humorous or emphatic effect.

  • Example: "'That's just great,' said John, when he heard he had failed his exam."

• Litotes: Deliberate understatement expressing an affirmative by negating its opposite.

  • Example: "That's not a bad idea."

• Metaphor: Direct comparison stating one thing is another non-literally.

  • Example: "All the world's a stage."

• Metonymy: Substituting the name of an attribute or feature for that of the thing itself.

  • Example: "The pen is mightier than the sword."

• Onomatopoeia: Words that phonetically imitate the sound they describe.

  • Example: "The owl hooted in the night."

• Oxymoron: Combining two contradictory terms side-by-side.

  • Example: "Jumbo shrimp"

• Paradox: A self-contradictory statement that reveals a deeper underlying truth upon closer inspection.

  • Example: "Less is more."

• Personification: Attributing human characteristics to non-human entities or inanimate objects.

  • Example: "The wind howled through the night."

• Pun: Play on words exploiting multiple meanings or homophones.

  • Example: "I used to be a baker, but I couldn't make enough dough."

• Rhetorical Question: A question asked to make a point without expecting an answer.

  • Example: "What's the point of even trying?"

• Simile: Comparison between two distinct things explicitly using "like" or "as".

  • Example: "She's as sweet as candy."

• Synecdoche: Using a part of something to represent the whole, or vice versa.

  • Example: "All hands on deck!"

• Understatement: Deliberately representing something as smaller or less intense than it is.

  • Example: "It's just a little cold outside" (during a blizzard).

Modifiers, Punctuation, and Capitalization Rules

Modifiers

• Modifiers describe, qualify, or limit another element in a sentence.

  • Adjectives: Modify nouns or pronouns.

  • Adverbs: Modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or clauses.

  • Comparatives: Degree of comparison between two elements.

  • Superlatives: Degree of comparison among three or more elements.

Punctuation Guidelines

• Period (.):

  • Declarative sentences: "Today, I took a walk to nowhere."

  • Commands/requests: "Here's a cloth. Now gently burp the baby on your shoulder."

  • Indirect questions: "Jane asked if I knew where she had left her keys."

  • Decimals: $2.5$ ("Statisticians claim that the average family raises $2.5$ children.")

  • Currency values: $1.50$ ("I remember when $1.50$ could buy the coolest stuff.")

  • Name initials: "Sir James W. Dewault"

  • Standard abbreviations: "Jan. 12"

• Question Mark (?):

  • Direct questions: "Why do you look so sad?"

  • Direct quotes that are questions: She asked, "Why do you look so sad?"

• Exclamation Point (!):

  • Sentences expressing intense emotion: "Help!", "That's fantastic!", "What a lovely view you have here!"

• Quotation Marks (" "):

  • Direct dialogue quotes: Hamlet says, "To be, or not to be. That is the question."

  • Short titles (chapters, articles, short stories, poems, songs): "The Road Not Taken"

• Semicolon (;):

  • Between independent clauses without conjunctions: "Edward joined the basketball team; remarkably, the $5'4"$ young man excelled at the sport."

  • Separating complex items in a list containing internal commas: "The possible dates for the potluck dinner are Thursday, June 5; Saturday, June 7; or Monday, June 9."

• Colon (:):

  • Explanatory connection: "Keri pushed her dinner away: she had eaten on the car ride home."

  • Introducing lists: "Grandma brought Chloe's favorite three sweets: chocolate kisses, Tootsie Rolls, and a Snickers bar."

  • Title and subtitle separation: Finding Your Dream Home: A Buyer's Guide

  • Volume and page: Marvel Comics $21:24$

  • Chapter and verse: Job $4:12$

  • Time separation: $2:00\text{ a.m.}$

• Apostrophe ('):

  • Contractions: "It's ($\text{It is}$) okay to cry every so often."

  • Possessives: "Mary Jane's horse sprained his ankle during practice."

• Comma (,):

  • Dates and locations: "Michael arrived at Ellis Island, New York, on February 14, 1924."

  • Series lists: "Bursar's, Financial Aid, and Registrar's offices."

  • Coordinate adjectives: "several intense, talented high school athletes."

  • Dialogue tags: David whined, "I am famished." / "I am famished," whined David.

  • Nonessential clauses, parenthetical phrases, and appositives: "Matt's mother, Janie (appositive), who has trouble with directions (nonessential clause), had to ask for help."

  • Introductory clauses: "Hoping for the best, we checked our luggage."

  • Joining independent clauses before coordinating conjunctions.

Capitalization Rules

• First word of every sentence.

• First word of a complete quoted sentence: He sang, "O beautiful for spacious skies…"

• Proper nouns (specific names of people, titles, geographical regions, political/social/athletic organizations, historical events, official documents, periodicals, nationalities, languages, religions, deities, brand names, holidays).

• Abbreviations of proper nouns (e.g., CIA).

• Adjectives derived from proper nouns: "American flag" (derived from America).

• The pronoun "I".

• Major words in literary/artistic titles: A Tale of Two Cities

• Capitalization Practice: "I bought a new car, a black ford Mustang."

  • Options: A. I, B. new, C. car, D. ford, E. black

  • Correct Answer: D. ford (Brand/trade names are proper nouns and must be capitalized as "Ford").

Tagalog Grammar Rules (Balarilang Filipino)

Wastong Gamit ng "Ng" at "Nang"

• Gamit ng "Ng":

  • Pantukoy sa layon ng pandiwa o tagapagtanggap: Nag-aaral ng Ilokano si Sonia.

  • Pang-ukol na katumbas ng Ingles na "with": Hinampas niya ng payong ang aso.

  • Pang-ukol na katumbas ng "sa" (to/towards): Magsisiuwi ng Pilipinas ang magagaling na doktor.

• Gamit ng "Nang":

  • Pangatnig sa sugnay na di-makapag-iisa (when / as soon as): Nang siya ay dumating, dumagsa ang tao.

  • Pang-abay na nagsasaad ng paraan ng kilos (mula sa "na + ng"): Nagbalita nang malakas ang aking kaibigan sa opisina.

• Pagsasanay: "Napakatindi ___ init sa labas kaya naman hindi ako makalabas ___ bahay ___ maayos."

  • Unang patlang: "ng" (pantukoy sa init)

  • Ikalawang patlang: "ng" (pang-ukol)

  • Ikatlong patlang: "nang" (pang-abay sa maayos)

  • Wastong Sagot: D. ng; ng; nang

Wastong Gamit ng "May" at "Mayroon"

• Gamit ng "May":

  • Kapag ang kasunod na salita ay Pangngalan: May batang nahulog.

  • Kapag ang kasunod ay Pandiwa: May sasayaw na babae mamayang gabi.

  • Kapag ang kasunod ay Pang-uri: May bagong bahay na nasunog.

  • Kapag ang kasunod ay Panghalip na Paari: May kanya-kanya tayong alam.

  • Kapag ang kasunod ay Pantukoy na "Mga": May mga batang pupunta dito mamaya.

  • Kapag ang kasunod ay Pang-ukol na "Sa": May sa-kalabaw ang boses ng taong iyan.

• Gamit ng "Mayroon":

  • Kapag sinusundan ng Panghalip na Palagyo (nominative pronoun): Mayroon kaming dadaluhang pulong bukas.

  • Kapag sinusundan ng Kataga (enclitic particle): Mayroon ding pulong ang kababaihan.

  • Patalinghagang kahulugan (nagsasaad ng kayamanan o pagmamay-ari): Si Mayor Favila ang mayroon sa lahat.

• Pagsasanay: "Sa isang liblib na lugar, ___ nakatirang dalawang mag-asawa. ___ silang isang anak na nagngangalang Luwis…"

  • Wastong Sagot: A. may; mayroon

Wastong Gamit ng "Din/Rin", "Daw/Raw", at "Doon/Roon"

• Rin, Raw, Roon: Ginagamit kapag ang sinusundang salita ay nagtatapos sa patinig (A, E, I, O, U) o malapatinig (W, Y).

  • Mga halimbawa: Himala rin ang kailangan niya. / Kaliwete raw ang dalaga. / Umuwi roon ang kanyang asawa.

• Din, Daw, Doon: Ginagamit kapag ang sinusundang salita ay nagtatapos sa katinig (maliban sa W at Y).

  • Mga halimbawa: Matatapos din ang araw. / Magaling daw siyang aktres. / Paakyat doon ang daan.

Wastong Gamit ng "Walisin" at "Walisan"

• Walisin: Pandiwang pokus sa layon (object-focus). Tumutukoy sa mismong bagay o dumi na aalisin.

  • Halimbawa: Walisin mo ang mga tuyong dahon sa bakuran.

• Walisan: Pandiwang pokus sa ganapan (location-focus). Tumutukoy sa lugar o puwesto na lilinisin.

  • Halimbawa: Walisan mo ang bakuran.

Wastong Gamit ng "Sina/Nina/Kina" at "Sila/Nila"

• Sila, Nila: Ginagamit bilang mga panghalip panao (personal pronouns) na walang kasunod na tiyak na pangngalan.

  • Mga halimbawa: Sila ay nakaalis na. / Naabutan pa nila ang parada.

• Sina, Nina, Kina: Ginagamit kapag direktang sinusundan ng mga tanging pangalan ng tao.

  • Mga halimbawa: Ikinasal na sina Lyra at Liro. / Sa isang buwan pa ang kasal nina Medie at Glenn. / May handaan kina Kent.

Wastong Gamit ng "Kung" at "Kong"

• Kung: Ginagamit bilang pangatnig sa mga sugnay na di-makapag-iisa sa pangungusap na hugnayan (if/when).

  • Halimbawa: Kung siya'y narito, tayo'y magiging magulo.

• Kong: Mula sa panghalip na "ko" na inangkupan ng "-ng" bilang pakikiugnay sa kasunod na salita (that I / my).

  • Halimbawa: Ipinagtapat kong nangyari.

Wastong Gamit ng "Subukin" at "Subukan"

• Subukin: Pagsusuri o pagsisiyasat sa uri, lakas, o kakayahan ng isang tao o bagay (to test/try).

  • Halimbawa: Subukin mong gamitin ang sabon na ito.

• Subukan: Pagtingin o pag-eespiya sa ginagawa ng isang tao (to observe/monitor secretly).

  • Halimbawa: Sinubukan nila ang disiplina ng mga mag-aaral.

Wastong Gamit ng "Pahirin" at "Pahiran"

• Pahirin: Pag-aalis o pagpawi ng dumi o bagay sa isang ibabaw (to wipe off).

  • Halimbawa: Pahirin mo ang dumi sa iyong mukha.

• Pahiran: Paglalagay o pagpahid ng bagay sa isang ibabaw (to apply/smear on).

  • Halimbawa: Pahiran mo ng pulang pintura ang gate.

Wastong Gamit ng "Maliban" at "Bukod"

• Maliban: Nangangahulugang "except" o "aside from" (matangi sa binanggit ay wala nang iba).

  • Halimbawa: Maliban sa lupa, wala na siyang maiiwan sa nag-iisang anak.

• Bukod: Nangangahulugang "in addition to" o "besides" (may karagdagan pa sa binanggit).

  • Halimbawa: Bukod sa lupa, may bahay pa siyang maiiwan sa nag-iisang anak.

Wastong Gamit ng "Gawin" at "Gawan"

• Gawin: Ginagamitan ng panlaping -in/-hin para sa pandiwang pokus sa layon (doing an action/task).

  • Halimbawa: Gawin mo ang sa tingin mo ay tama.

• Gawan: Ginagamitan ng panlaping -an/-han para sa pandiwang pokus sa direksyon/tagatanggap (doing something for someone).

  • Halimbawa: Subukan mong gawan siya ng mabuti.

Mga Anyo ng Panlaping Morphophonemic

• Sang-, Sing-, Pang-, Mang-, Labing-: Ginagamit kapag ang salitang-ugat ay nagsisimula sa patinig (A, E, I, O, U) o mga katinig na K, G, NG, M, N, W, Y.

  • Mga halimbawa: labing-apat, pang-mulat, sang-ayon, mang-api, sing-ganda.

• Pam-, Mam-, Sim-, Sam-, Labim-: Ginagamit kapag ang salitang-ugat ay nagsisimula sa B at P.

  • Mga halimbawa: pambansa, mambabae, labimpito.

• Pan-, Man-, Sin-, San-, Labin-: Ginagamit kapag ang salitang-ugat ay nagsisimula sa mga katinig na D, L, R, S, T.

  • Mga halimbawa: pandidiri, sinlaki, labinsiyam, mandikta.

Wastong Gamit ng Gitling sa Balarilang Filipino

• Inuulit na Salita:

  • May gitling LAMANG kapag ang inuulit na salita o root word ay may sariling kahulugan.

  • Mali: taon taon, kulang kulang, araw araw

  • Tama: taon-taon, kulang-kulang, araw-araw

  • Walang gitling kapag ang salita ay hindi binubuo ng inuulit na may kahulugang root word: paruparo (walang salitang "paro"), ipuipo, alaala.

  • Bahagyang inuulit: Basta't may kahulugan ang bahagi, nilalagyan ng gitling: pare-pareho, kabi-kabila.

  • Pagsasanay sa Inuulit na Salita: "___ sa mga kaklase mo ang pupunta sa iyong debut?"

  • Mga Pagpipilian: A. Sino, B. Sinu-sino, C. Sino-sino, D. Sino-sinu, E. Sinu-sinu

  • Wastong Sagot: C. Sino-sino (pinapanatili ang "o" sa pormal na pag-uulit ng salitang-ugat).

• Gitling sa mga Pandiwa:

  • Naglalagay lamang ng gitling kapag nagbabago ang kahulugan at tunog ng salita dahil sa gitling.

  • May Gitling: nagiba (destroyed) vs. nag-iba (changed); nagulat (shocked) vs. nag-ulat (reported).

  • Walang Gitling: nagluto (cooked) — hindi nag-luto sapagkat pareho lang ang kahulugan.

• Panghalip na Taga- / Tiga-:

  • May gitling kapag sinusundan ng Pangngalang Pantangi (proper noun): Taga-Maynila.

  • Walang gitling kapag sinusundan ng Pangngalang Pambalana (common noun): Tagasiyudad.

• Pagsasama ng Dalawang Salita (Compound Words):

  • May gitling kapag nananatili ang literal na kahulugan ng dalawang salita: amoy-pawis, agaw-buhay, lipat-bahay.

  • Walang gitling kapag nagkaroon ng bagong kaisipan/patalinghagang kahulugan at nagbago ang tunog: hampaslupa, bahaghari, habambuhay.

Wastong Gamit ng Prefixes na "Ika" / "Ika-" at "Maka" / "Maka-"

• Ika vs. Ika-:

  • Walang gitling kapag ang bilang ay isinusulat bilang salita: ikatlong taon, ikalimang araw.

  • May gitling kapag ang mismong numero/digit ang isinusulat: ika-25 ng Enero, ika-5 taon.

• Maka vs. Maka-:

  • Walang gitling kapag pangngalang pambalana ang kasunod: makabayan.

  • May gitling kapag pangngalang pantangi ang kasunod: Maka-Nora.