Self: Western vs Eastern Thought and Physical Self

Core idea: Culture and environment shape perceptions of the self; a common Eastern–Western distinction exists, but proximity of countries can create shared features; differences arise from multiple factors.
Eastern vs Western distinction:
- Eastern: often associated with collectivism; emphasis on group harmony and interdependence.
- Western: often associated with individualism; emphasis on the individual and private goals.

Fundamental unit: the individual; capable of independent judgments and private motivations.
Characteristics:
- Self-identity centers on personal needs; independence and self-reliance are valued.
- People may cooperate, but group membership is not essential to identity or success.
- Public and private selves may be distinguished; more autonomy in decision-making.
Associations: often linked to men and urban settings; Western cultures are commonly described as individualistic.

Fundamental unit: the group; the group acts as a super-organism with its own interests.
Characteristics:
- Identity often defined by group membership (family, work team, community).
- Survival and success of the group underpin individual well-being.
- Harmony and interdependence are stressed; members are close within the group but distant to non-group members.
Associations: often linked to women and rural settings; Asian countries are commonly described as collectivist.

Key philosophical foundations:
- Descartes: “I think therefore I am,” highlighting cognitive basis of the self.
- Kant: the self as an autonomous agent with rights.
Western subjective self qualities:
- Analytic: objects seen as divisible; emphasis on thoughts, memories, and mental phenomena.
- Monotheistic: belief in a higher-order, sometimes rigid, supernatural framework.
- Individualistic: emphasis on personal independence and private thought.
- Materialistic and rationalistic: preference for rational, scientific explanations; spirituality seen as potentially suspect.

Confucius (551 BCE, Zhou Dynasty, state of Lu) developed humanistic social philosophy focused on social relationships.
Core concepts:
- Ren: humanity or benevolence guiding actions.
- Li: propriety; following rules of ceremonies and traditions.
- Xiao: filial piety; reverence and care for parents and family.
- Yi: righteousness; acting rightly for its own sake, not for selfish gain.
Social framework: the five relationships (father–son, ruler–subject, older–younger, husband–wife, friend–friend) shape moral development and social duties.

The Physical Self: Body image and self-esteem arise from biology and environment.
Biological foundation:
- Heredity: transmission of traits via genes; genotype vs phenotype.
- Humans have $23$ pairs of chromosomes; sex chromosomes determine sex; DNA contains genetic instructions.
Development factors:
- Maturation: unfolding of inherent traits.
- Environmental influences (social networks, culture) shape physical self over time.
Self-understanding (Santrock): cognitive representation of self; changes across lifespan.
Puberty: brain neuroendocrine changes trigger rapid physical changes.
- Pituitary gland as master endocrine gland; gonads produce sex-specific changes.
- Girls: menarche (first menstrual flow); boys: spermarche (first ejaculation).

Physical self can be treated as an object or as part of identity; connectedness to the body varies by context.
The body self comprises objective (physical traits) and subjective (self-perception) components.
Theories of body understanding:
- Psychodynamic: body ego; early bodily experiences shape self; three stages:
  1) early bodily sensations differentiate self from surrounding; 2) awareness of body boundaries; 3) integration of internal states.
- Body has both objective and subjective aspects; body experience can predict behaviors.
- Cognitive–Behavioral: body image determinants include historical and concurrent factors; multi-factor explanations.
- Feminist: social construction of body image, especially for women; mind–body dualism in Western thought contributes to body dissatisfaction.

Personal factors:
- Introspection and self-reflection: internal state awareness.
- Self-perception theory: infer inner states from behavior.
- Self-concept: cognitive representation of self; beliefs about abilities, roles, values.
- Personal identity: lineage, nationality, gender, life choices.
Social factors:
- Attachment and social appraisal: valuing support from caregivers.
- Looking-glass self (Cooley): self-image shaped by others’ perceptions.
- Social comparison (Festinger): upward vs downward comparisons affect self-evaluation.
- Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1973): group membership boosts self-esteem; identity derives from group belonging.

Beauty is culturally constructed; the social milieu strongly shapes body image and self-esteem.
Social constructionist view: beauty, weight, sexuality, and race take meaning from culture and historical context; meanings can change.
Social skin (Turner, 1980): social categories become inscribed on the body; body becomes a stage for cultural dramas.
Mary Douglas (1973): body as a natural symbol for social classification; strict social boundaries regulate bodily boundaries.
Dramaturgical theory (Goffman): impression management; behavior is moderated to fit social expectations.
Fashion locus: clothing matters for women’s identity and body image (Gaines, 1990).
Media influence: mass media reinforces cultural beauty standards and can negatively affect body image and self-esteem.
Essentialist vs. constructionist views:
- Essentialism: bodies are defined by biology alone.
- Constructionism: biological features gain meaning within social and cultural contexts.
Social concepts of the body as “social skin” and cultural scripts shape how metrics of beauty are valued.

Darwin (1871) argued no universal standard of beauty based on biology.
Later findings (Samuels & Ewy, 1985) show infants prefer faces rated as attractive by adults, suggesting early, possibly innate preferences for beauty; findings extend across gender, race, and age.

Adolescents face pressure from unrealistic beauty ideals, risking mental and physical health.
Positive body image: acceptance that beauty comes in many shapes and sizes; beauty definitions are personally meaningful, not imposed by others.
Self-esteem: global evaluation of self-worth; higher self-esteem correlates with happiness and better social functioning.
Culture and media shape standards of beauty; adolescents need guidance and supportive environments to foster healthy self-perception.
Takeaway: focus on individual qualities and self-acceptance rather than external standards; celebrate body diversity and resist uniform beauty ideals.