week 8 1020
Cybernetics
Cybernetics is defined as the interdisciplinary study of the structure and flow of information in self-regulating communication systems, which can be technical, social, or biological in nature. Key components of cybernetics include issues of feedback and control within organizational communication. The field was primarily developed by Norbert Wiener and gained popularity during the 1950s and 1960s. Cybernetics shares close connections with systems theory and functionalism. It emphasizes the importance of information flow, which refers to the movement of information in various systems, thereby enabling feedback mechanisms that influence behaviors and outcomes in organizations and other systems.
Cyborg
The term "cyborg" is a contraction of "cybernetic organism," representing a hybrid being that is part human and part machine. The concept was first coined in 1960 by Clynes, although similar creatures had been depicted in science fiction as early as the 1920s. They have been present in everyday life, notably through prosthetic limbs integrated into the human body. The idea of cyborgs captured public imagination, particularly through popular media such as the TV series Six Million Dollar Man (1974–1978). Donna Haraway utilized the concept of cyborgs in her critical theory in 1985, aiming to challenge biological essentialism and explore the blurred boundaries between organic and technological.
Binary Opposition
Binary opposition refers to pairs of mutually exclusive concepts in a paradigm that represent categories which are logically opposed and together define a complete universe of discourse. Each term within such oppositions implies its opposite and disallows any middle ground. Common examples include male/female, nature/culture, hot/cold, and signifier/signified. Post-structuralism and especially deconstruction emerged as challenges to the definitive nature of these oppositions, offering critiques on their absolute classifications.
Donna Haraway's Perspectives on Cyborgs
In discussions about Donna Haraway, a distinctive impression emerges. She embodies a dynamic juxtaposition, appearing more like a familiar figure than a product of military technology. Despite her earthly, soft demeanor, she aligns herself with the cyborg identity, asserting that the integration of humanity and technology is so profound that distinguishing between the two is increasingly impossible.
Haraway critiques the notion of so-called goddess feminism, suggesting it promotes a retreat into a perceived natural state as opposed to engaging with the modern technological landscape. Haraway explains that the current era includes complex interactions between people and technology, illustrating this through an example involving the evolution of sports footwear.
Before the Civil War, footwear was not differentiated by sides, but advancements have led to specialized shoes for specific activities. Haraway emphasizes that modern athletic achievement is not simply about speed but rather involves a confluence of medicine, diet, training, and technology, positioning athletes as interconnected in a global technocultural network.
The influence of performance-enhancing drugs highlights the complex nature of the cyborg landscape in sports, where the distinctions between natural and artificial are increasingly obscured. Haraway considers this intermingling of human and machine to redefine enduring social constructs, such as gender roles, arguing against notions of inherent nature. For her, if humanity can be seen as constructed like a cyborg, the implications for societal roles become fluid and adaptable, opening debates over unavoidable societal constructs.
Haraway also dives into the politics of being a cyborg. Contrary to the Westernized perspective of individualism, she proposes that understanding oneself as a node within networks provides a more accurate representation of reality. She challenges the Cartesian notion of selfhood by advocating for a view of existence deeply intertwined with various outside networks. Haraway contends that this perspective renders a more realistic understanding of human existence, as connections shape identity and behavior.
Historical Context of Cyborgs
Cyborgs, though often thought to reside within the realm of fantasy, have historical roots tracing back nearly fifty years. The first cyborg was an experimental laboratory rat from the late 1950s at Rockland State Hospital in New York, which had an osmotic pump implanted to manage its physiological functions. The concept of cyborgs was realized with the publication of "Cyborgs and Space" by Manfred Clynes and Nathan Kline in 1960, envisioning augmented humans tailored for the challenges of space travel.
The military's interest in cyborgs burgeoned during the 1960s, fueled by government funding for projects that aimed to elevate human capabilities through technological integration. Throughout history, the fascination with cyborgs has stemmed not only from scientific potential but also from deeper philosophical inquiries surrounding the enhancement of human capacities versus biological limits.
Haraway describes modern cyborgs as integrated information systems capable of processing and responding autonomously. The original framework of cybernetics laid by Norbert Wiener in 1948, which investigated the parallels between various phenomena relying on information transmission and feedback mechanisms, was crucial in shaping the cyborg discourse.，通过反馈，Wiener established a model linking diverse systems to understand and manipulate complex interactions in different fields, including biology, technology, and social organization. This model has led to a modern understanding of the human body comparable to a computer generating and responding to complex informational input.
The Legacy of Cybernetics
Although the initial enthusiasm for cybernetics diminished over the years, its residue remains significant in contemporary debates about the interconnectedness of systems, the body, and machines. Its fundamental vision of the world as a network and its belief in the porous boundaries between human and machine continue to influence contemporary discussions. The cyborg exemplifies these residues, illustrating the ongoing evolution of human identity through technology and the persistent ethical questions surrounding these developments. The advancements in medical technologies—such as cochlear implants, retinal implants, and cosmetic surgeries—as well as modern military applications encapsulate the potent legacy of cybernetics.
Negative feedback:
. People and Machines Both Adapt Using Negative Feedback
Cybernetic researchers’ first finding was that human and artificial systems adjust and remain stable using negative feedback.
Negative feedback
Automatic adjustment that keeps a system stable.
Two examples—one artificial, one living:
Artificial: A thermostat cuts off the heat to keep a room from getting too hot. It compensates to keep the environment from spinning out of control.
Living: When we balance on a beam, we compensate to keep from falling over. We correct to keep the system in equilibrium.
As a biological cybernetic system, the brain receives feedback and uses muscles to adjust to the environment—to remain stable.
As a technological cybernetic system, the toilet receives feedback and uses the float to adjust by cutting off the water valve—to remain stable.
Takeaway: Negative feedback prevents drift and keeps systems near a target state.