AICE CAMBRIDGE Comprehensive Study Notes on the Russian Revolution 1894-1921

Overview of the Russian Revolution (1894-1921)

• This period in Russian history is characterized by severe unrest, military failures, and systemic instability that culminated in the overthrow of the Romanov dynasty and the creation of the world's first communist state under the Bolsheviks.

• The central inquiry of this study guide focuses on four key areas:   - The causes and consequences of the $1905$ Revolution and developments through $1914$.   - The causes and immediate results of the February Revolution of $1917$.   - The mechanics of how and why the Bolsheviks seized power in October $1917$.   - The methods used by the Bolsheviks to consolidate their authority up to $1921$.

Chronology of Key Dates

• $1894$: Nicholas II ascends the throne as Tsar of the Russian Empire.

• $1904$: Outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War.

• $1905$: Year of Revolution; issuance of the October Manifesto.

• $1906$: Promulgation of the Fundamental Laws.

• $1906-1911$: Tenure of Petr Stolypin as Prime Minister.

• $1912$: The Lena Goldfield Massacre occurs.

• $1914$: Russia enters the First World War.

• $1915$: Tsar Nicholas II assumes personal command of the Russian military forces.

• $1916$: The Brusilov offensive takes place.

• $1917$   - February: February Revolution occurs, leading to the Tsar's abdication.   - July: The July Days unrest.   - October: October Revolution; Bolsheviks seize power.

• $1918$: Outbreak of Civil War; implementation of War Communism; execution of the Tsar and the royal family in Ekaterinburg.

• $1921$: Formation of the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics).

The Nature of the Tsarist Regime and Nicholas II

• Autocracy and Divine Right: Russia was governed by a Tsar (an emperor, derived from the Latin "Caesar"). Before $1905$, the Tsar held absolute authority. Law and tradition designated the ruler as an "absolute or autocratic ruler," appointed by God and accountable only to Him.

• The Romanov Dynasty: The Romanovs had ruled Russia since $1613$. They viewed the empire as their personal estate, a mindset that hindered modernization.

• Governing Bodies: While official bodies existed to advise the Tsar—including the Imperial Council, the Cabinet of Ministers, and the Senate—the Tsar's word remained final in all matters.

• Personality of Nicholas II ($1868-1918$):   - Succeeded his father, Alexander III, in $1894$. In the same year, he married Princess Alexandra of Hesse, a German granddaughter of Queen Victoria.   - Historians frequently characterize Nicholas II as weak-willed, lacking confidence, a poor judge of character, and more interested in his family than in administration.   - Despite his perceived personal failings, he possessed a profound sense of duty and was committed to maintaining the autocracy intact.   - His reluctance to reform, prioritizing the preservation of the dynasty, is seen as a central factor in the monarchy's collapse.

• Geographic and Demographic Challenges:   - The Empire was vast, spanning Europe and Asia, making it difficult to govern effectively.   - Most of the population was concentrated in European Russia, particularly in Moscow and the capital, St Petersburg.   - The Empire comprised a massive range of different peoples, nationalities, and religions, complicating centralized control.

Deep-Seated Systemic Problems in Russia

• Political Conflict:   - Inherited the repressive legacy of Alexander III ($1845-1894$), who had weakened the zemstva (local councils) and used Land Captains (landowners who controlled peasants) to suppress dissent.   - Tightening press censorship and local government controls drove opposition underground, fostering secret extremist groups. This was highlighted by the assassinations of high-ranking officials and the earlier bombing death of Nicholas's grandfather, Alexander II ($1881$).

• Social Strains:   - The Peasantry: Composed $80\%$ of the population. Although the Emancipation of the Serfs in $1861$ ended the landowners' literal ownership of people, it failed to solve agricultural problems. Peasant standard of living was low; many were illiterate, and they suffered from a backwards agricultural economy (often using wooden ploughs).   - Land Hunger and Debt: Post-emancipation land redistribution often resulted in smaller plots for peasants, who were saddled with high interest on government loans for land purchase.   - Urbanization: Industrial growth led to rapid urban expansion. Towns were plagued by poor housing, lack of sanitation, and poor water quality, facilitating the spread of disease and worker dissatisfaction.   - The "Dark Masses": A term for the largely illiterate peasantry, whose perceived potential for violence led the government to rely on repression.

• Economic Backwardness:   - Russia was primarily an agricultural nation. While grain was exported to build capital, domestic famines were common. A massive famine in $1891$ resulted in the deaths of approximately $350,000$ people.   - Although industrial growth averaged $8\%$ per year by $1894$, Russia lagged behind Britain and Germany. Development relied heavily on foreign investment.

Key Ideologies and Influential Figures

• Westerners: Proponents who believed Russia must adopt Western European democratic and social values to become a great nation.

• Slavophiles: Opponents of Westernization who believed foreign values were corrupting; they championed traditional Slavic culture and values.

• Konstantin Petrovich Pobedonostsev ($1827-1907$): Tutor to Nicholas II and arch-conservative advisor who advocated for autocracy and religious orthodoxy. He encouraged Russification (imposing Russian language and culture on minorities) and pogroms (violent attacks on Jewish communities).

• Sergei Witte ($1849-1915$): Minister of Finance and later Prime Minister. He championed the Great Spurt, a period of rapid industrial growth funded by foreign investment and state support. Industrial income rose from $42\,\text{million roubles}$ in $1893$ to $161\,\text{million roubles}$ in $1897$. He negotiated the peace with Japan in $1905$ and drafted the October Manifesto.

• Political Parties:   - Social Revolutionaries (SRs): Focused on peasant support and land redistribution; some factions engaged in terrorist acts.   - Social Democrats: Marxist followers who believed industrial workers would lead the revolution. Influenced by Karl Marx, they envisioned a classless society, though Marxists generally only achieved the stage of "dictatorship by the workers."   - Kadets: A middle-class party advocating for constitutional liberal democracy.

The 1905 Revolution: Causes and Outcomes

• The Russo-Japanese War ($1904-1905$):   - Caused by competition over Manchuria and Korea. Russia sought an ice-free port.   - Interior Minister Vyacheslav Plehve famously stated Russia needed a "small, victorious war to avert a revolution."   - The war was a disaster: defeats at the Battle of Yalu, the surrender of Port Arthur, and the destruction of the fleet at Tsushima Bay humiliated the regime.

• Bloody Sunday ($22\,\text{January}\,1905$):   - Father Georgy Gapon led a peaceful march of workers to the Winter Palace to present a petition to the Tsar.   - The petition demanded an $8\text{-hour}$ workday, minimum wage consultation, and investigation of grievances. Workers described themselves as being in "slavery."   - Police and cavalry fire killed approximately $200$ protestors, injuring many more. This event decimated the image of the Tsar as the "Little Father."

• Spread of Unrest: In response, strikes paralyzed major cities. Grand Duke Sergei and Plehve were assassinated. The crew of the battleship Potemkin mutinied. Minority groups like the Poles and Jews demanded rights, and Georgia declared independence. Paul Milyukov organized the "Union of Unions."

• October Manifesto ($1905$): Faced with a general strike, Nicholas II promised a legislative Duma (parliament), freedom of speech, assembly, and worship, and the legalization of political parties.

• Peasant Pacification: The Tsar announced that land mortgage payments would be reduced and eventually abolished to win over the peasantry.

• Repression of Workers: The government crushed the St Petersburg and Moscow soviets. In Moscow, approximately $1,000$ people were killed.

The Era of the Dumas and Stolypin’s Reforms ($1906-1914$)

• The Fundamental Laws ($April\,1906$): Nicholas II asserted that no law could be passed without his approval, effectively maintaining his autocratic power despite the Duma.

• The Four Dumas:   - 1st Duma ($1906$) & 2nd Duma ($1907$): Hostile to the government and quickly dissolved. Some members issued the Vyborg appeal for tax resistance, resulting in mass arrests.   - 3rd Duma ($1907-1912$) & 4th Duma ($1912-1917$): More conservative due to changes in electoral laws that favored the nobility. They successfully passed reforms for the army, navy, and judicial system, and an insurance scheme for workers.

• Petr Stolypin's Policies:   - Suppression: His use of military courts resulted in over $2,500$ executions between $1906$ and $1911$, leading to the phrase "Stolypin's necktie" for the hangman's noose.   - Land Reform: The "wager on the strong" aimed to create a class of prosperous, loyal peasants by allowing them to consolidate land into smallholdings. This was cut short by the outbreak of war in $1914$.

• Lena Goldfield Massacre ($1912$): Police shot striking gold miners in Siberia who were demanding better conditions. This event reignited national worker militancy, comparable to the shock of Bloody Sunday.

Questions & Discussion (Source Highlights)

• Source A (Gapon's Petition): Workers expressed total exhaustion, stating they were approaching a moment where "death is better than continuance of intolerable sufferings." They complained that their employers refused to discuss wages or work hours.

• Source C (Mikhail Rodzianko): The Duma chairman described the government in $1913$ as "anarchy," stating that ministers either did not know his Majesty’s will or ignored it, and the cabinet was split into warring parties.

• Source D (Secret Police Agent): In $1912$, people were speaking of the government/Tsar in the "sharpest and most unbridled tones," and tension was at an all-time high.

• Source E (Guchkov): The Octobrist leader stated in $1913$ that the attempt at a peaceful transition from the "old condemned system" had failed, and the people were being "revolutionized by the actions of the government."

Stability Debate: The Eve of WWI

• Evidence for Stability: The Romanovs celebrated $300$ years of rule in $1913$ with popular acclaim. The economy was growing, and radical leaders like Lenin were in exile. The October Manifesto had split the opposition.

• Evidence for Instability: The Tsar remained unwilling to fundamentally change his autocratic nature. Political strikes rose from $24$ in $1911$ to $2,401$ in $1914$. Living conditions in towns remained horrific (only $38$ of $1,000$ towns had sewage systems in $1914$; a cholera outbreak in $1910$ killed over $100,000$ in St Petersburg).