Historical Development of Buddhist and Jain Architecture: Foundations and Typologies

Introduction to Buddhism and Its Philosophy

• Founding and Early Life of the Buddha

  • Siddhartha (Gautama): The founder of Buddhism was the son of Suddodhana. He was born in $563\,B.C.$ in Lumbini.
  • The Four Encounters: In his $29th$ year, he experienced four encounters that prompted him to renounce his kingdom and seek the path of moksha (liberation).
  • Enlightenment: In $531\,B.C.$, he attained enlightenment while meditating under a Bodhi tree at Gaya. From this point, he became known as the "Buddha."

• Core Tenets of Buddhism

  • Non-violence: A fundamental principle of his teaching.
  • Oneness: Promoting the unity of existence.
  • Humanity: A focus on human-centric ethics.
  • Deliverance: The religion teaches the deliverance from sorrow, trouble, and ignorance through enlightenment, ultimately leading to "nirvana."

• The Four Noble Truths

  1. Suffering: Unhappiness and suffering are inherent parts of human life; no one can escape sorrow.
  2. Origin of Suffering: Suffering originates from human desires for material goods and pleasure.
  3. Cessation of Suffering: People can overcome ignorance and desire to reach nirvana, a state of perfect peace.
  4. The Path: Ignorance and desire are overcome by following an eightfold path leading to wisdom, enlightenment, and salvation.

• The Eightfold Path

  1. Right Thought: Believing in the Four Noble Truths and the nature of existence as suffering.
  2. Right Intent: Inclining the mind toward kindness and goodness.
  3. Right Speech: Avoiding gossip and lies.
  4. Right Action: Refraining from stealing or harming others.
  5. Right Livelihood: Rejecting work that causes harm to others.
  6. Right Effort: Preventing evil and actively doing good.
  7. Right Mindfulness: Controlling one's thoughts and feelings.
  8. Right Concentration: Practicing proper meditation.

• Sects of Buddhism

  • Theravada: Members follow the Buddha's teachings exactly as originally presented.
  • Mahayana: Members believe that individual interpretation of the teachings is important.

Evolution and Spread of Buddhist Architecture

• Historical Context

  • Buddhist architecture is deeply rooted in Indian soil, the birthplace of the faith.
  • Development began with symbols representing aspects of the Buddha’s life ($563\,BCE$ - $483\,BCE$).
  • Emperor Ashoka: As the ruler of the Magadh empire, Ashoka established Buddhism as the state religion and utilized architectural monuments to spread the faith across India and foreign lands.

• Symbolism in Architecture

  • The design of Buddhist temples originated from the Stupa.
  • Pagodas: Modern temples often feature pagodas; if not in the overall shape, a replica is kept inside.
  • The Five Elements: Temples are designed to symbolize five elements: Fire, Air/Wind, Earth, Water, and Wisdom/Void.

• Elements, Colors, and Symbols Table

  • Space / Wisdom (White): Associated with Buddha and the wisdom of all-encompassing space.
  • Wind (Green): Associated with Karma and all-accomplishing wisdom.
  • Fire (Red): Associated with Padma and discriminating wisdom.
  • Water (Blue): Associated with Vajra and mirror-like wisdom.
  • Earth (Yellow): Associated with Ratna and the wisdom of equanimity.

• Anatomical/Symbolic Representation (Stupa/Temple Parts)

  • Eyes: Represent enlightenment.
  • Sun: Represents Prajna (wisdom).
  • Moon: Represents Bodhicitta (heart of awakening).
  • Jewel: Represents enlightenment.
  • Parasol: Represents Karuna (compassion).
  • 13 Rings: Represent the ten bhumis of the Mahayana and the three higher stages of the Vajrayana.
  • Harmika: Represents the Eightfold Noble Path (Right view, understanding, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, samadhi).
  • Bumpa (Vase/Chest): Represents the seven elements of enlightenment (mindfulness, discrimination, essence, joy, pliancy, samadhi, equanimity).
  • 3 Steps: Represent the Three Refuges (Buddha, Dharma, Sangha).

Structural Typologies of Buddhist Architecture

• Major Features

  1. Stupas: Mound-like structures for relics and meditation (e.g., Sanchi Stupa).
  2. Stambhas: Pillars often bearing inscriptions (e.g., Ashoka Pillar/Lats).
  3. Chaityas: Prayer halls or assembly halls (e.g., Chaitya at Karli).
  4. Viharas: Monasteries providing accommodation for monks (e.g., Vihara at Ajanta).

• The Stupa Structure

  • Definition: A circular tumulus (mound of earth and stones over a grave) built of earth and covered with stone or brick. Its form is derived from the circle.
  • Symbolism: The spherical dome represents the infinite space of the sky or the abode of God.
  • Anda: The hemispherical dome.
  • Harmika: A small square balcony at the top of the dome enclosing a pedestal. It was expanded over time into an inverted stepped pyramid.
  • Chattra Spire: A triple-tiered stone or wooden umbrella supported on a shaft, raised over the Harmika. It is the Buddhist equivalent of the mystic tree of Lord Vishnu and symbolizes high rank.
  • Vedica: A stone or wooden railing encircling the stupa.
  • Medhi: A terrace added around the base of the dome, creating an upper ambulatory passage.
  • Sopana: A double staircase with a high balustrade (usually on the south side) to access the Medhi.
  • Pradikshana Path: The ambulatory passage for circumambulation.
  • Toranas: Gateway portals located at cardinal points.

The Great Stupa at Sanchi

• Historical Significance: The oldest stone structure in India, commissioned by Emperor Ashoka in the $3rd$ century BCE.
• Dimensions:
  • Dome Diameter: $32.32\,m$.
  • Dome Height: $12.8\,m$.
  • Medhi (Terrace) Height: $4.87\,m$ from the ground.
  • Upper Ambulatory Width: $1.8\,m$.
  • Railing (Vedica) Height: $3.35\,m$.
• Construction Details:
  • Nucleus is a simple brick structure built over Buddha's relics.
  • Facing consists of dry masonry with hammer-dressed stones in even courses.
  • Finished with a thick layer of lime mortar. In some stupas, domes were colored or gilded, with recesses for lamps lit during festivals.

Toranas and Vedicas

• Toranas (Gateways):
  • Acceptable as traditional ceremonial portals in Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain architecture.
  • Consist of two square upright columns with capitals featuring lion or elephant heads (denoting strength).
  • Columns support three horizontal panels (architraves) with rows of ornamental balusters between them.
  • Panels are supported by "Atlantean" figures (dwarfs, lions, and elephants).
  • Total Height: Approximately $10.36\,m$ with a width of $3\,m$.
  • Located at cardinal points and slightly staggered from the main railing.
• Vedica (Railing):
  • Consists of uprights with an octagonal plan, $45\,cm$ in diameter.
  • Uprights are spaced $60$ to $90\,cm$ apart.
  • Uprights are connected by three lens-shaped horizontals called Suchi (needles), which are $60\,cm$ deep and threaded through the uprights.
  • The top horizontal bar features a coping to drain rainwater.

Stambhas (Ashoka Pillars or Lats)

• Purpose: Religious signposts bearing inscriptions of Buddhist leading doctrines.
• Pillar at Sarnath:
  • Height: Over $15\,m$.
  • Capital: More than $2\,m$ high, shaped like an inverted bell or lotus bud with fluted petals.
  • Abacus: Circular with ornamental borders, featuring four animal figures alternating with four small wheels.
  • Summit: Surmounted by four addorsed lions (back-to-back) with flowing manes. Originally, they supported a massive metal wheel with $24$ spokes called the "Wheel of the Law."
• Types of Columns:
  • Persepolitian Type: Octagonal shaft, bell-shaped capital, animal sculpture topping the capital, and a vase-shaped base. Features a highly polished shaft.
  • Graeco-Roman Type: Rectangular with shallow flutes. Tall and slender, where the height is $6$ to $8$ times the lower diameter. Features a fluted vase motif at the capital.

Rock-Cut Cave Architecture

• Phases of Development:
  1. Phase 1: $2nd$ Century B.C. to $2nd$ Century A.D. (Exclusive to Hinayana/Early Buddhism, focusing on symbolic representation).
  2. Phase 2: $5th$ Century to $7th$ Century.
  3. Phase 3: $7th$ Century to $10th$ Century.
• Establishment Types:
  • Chaitya: Prayer hall/sanctuary.
  • Vihara: Monastery for monk accommodation.

Chaitya Halls (Prayer Halls)

• Origins: Originally likely a wooden shed with a thatched roof and a small stupa. Transitioned to rock-cut architecture to provide permanent shelter (Varshavatika) during the monsoon.
• Plan and Design:
  • Long hall ending in an apse containing a rock-cut stupa.
  • Circumbulation (Pradakshina) space surrounding the stupa.
  • Roof: Semi-circular barrel-vaulted roof replicating wooden ribs in stone.
  • Division: Longitudinally divided by two colonnades into a central broad nave and two side aisles.
  • Entrance Facade: Defined by a Horseshoe Arch motif, reminiscent of the Bodhi tree leaf. This motif was later adapted into Hindu architecture.
• Chaitya at Karli:
  • Dimensions: $38.5\,m$ long, $13\,m$ wide, with a vaulted roof rising to $13.7\,m$.
  • Grand Entrance: Three doorways set beneath a gallery.
  • Interior Details: Columns are $1.22\,m$ in diameter and $7.32\,m$ high. Octagonal shafts on vase bases.
  • Capitals: Bell-shaped, supporting pairs of kneeling elephants carrying riders, with horses and tigers at the rear.

Viharas (Monasteries)

• General Features:
  • Residential places for priests containing a main hall, assembly hall, dining chambers, and cells for meditation.
  • Structural viharas reached up to $60\,m$ high, covered in glazed tiles with dragon-etched pillars and polychromatic rafters.
• Hinayana vs. Mahayana Viharas
  • Hinayana Vihara: Severe and rigorous form. Buddha is not worshipped in human form (anthropometric).
    • Entered by steps to a vestibule with a colonnade.
    • Rectangular central hall (sky court) with cells for monks on three sides.
    • Cells contain stone beds and benches. Doorways are slightly shifted from the center of the wall.
  • Mahayana Vihara: More decorative; images of Buddha appear in chaityas and viharas.
    • Example: Cave No. 2 at Ajanta.
    • Features an additional gallery surrounding the central hall, divided by rows of columns.
    • Cells opposite the entrance are enlarged and converted into shrines containing a larger-than-life statue of Buddha (symbolizing Buddha as one among the monks).
    • Ceiling heights: Central hall and gallery are higher; cells are lower.
    • Art: Shrines and walls depict Buddha's life through fine frescoes (e.g., Ajanta).

Jain Architecture Introduction

• Scope of Study: Principles of Jain building design through three categories:
  1. Monumental
  2. Domestic (built to inhabit)
  3. Civic Space