Animal Behaviour and Conservation Notes
Introduction
Animal behaviour and conservation are deeply interconnected, influencing each other in significant ways. Understanding this connection is crucial for effective conservation strategies, but it faces several barriers, including differing priorities and methodologies among researchers.
Animal behaviour is increasingly used in applied conservation research and projects, providing insights into how animals interact with their environment and respond to conservation efforts.
What is Behaviour?
Behaviour encompasses consistent, measurable, and repeated actions and interactions between an individual and its environment or other organisms. This includes a wide range of activities, such as foraging, mating, social interactions, and responses to threats.
Behaviour is measured using both qualitative (e.g., descriptions of behaviour) and quantitative measures (e.g., frequency, duration, and intensity of behaviour), allowing for comprehensive analysis.
Considered from various angles using Tinbergen’s four questions to understand the development and evolution of behaviours which helps researchers gain a holistic view of why certain behaviours occur.
Tinbergen’s Four Questions
Framework for understanding behaviour, considering both proximate and evolutionary explanations. These questions help to explore the immediate causes of behaviour as well as its long-term evolutionary significance.
Proximate Explanations: Focus on how organisms work, including the mechanisms (physiological and neurological processes) and ontogeny (developmental processes) underlying behaviour.
Evolutionary Explanations: Examine how a species came to its current form, considering the sequence of forms influenced by natural selection and adaptation over generations.
Developmental/Historical Explanations:
Ontogeny: How traits develop in individuals, tracing the changes in behaviour from birth to adulthood.
Phylogeny: Phylogenetic history of the trait, examining how behaviour has evolved across different species and lineages.
Single Form Explanations:
Mechanism: Structure and function of the trait, detailing the physical and biological underpinnings of behaviour.
Adaptive significance: How variations in the trait influence fitness, assessing the survival and reproductive benefits of specific behaviours.
What is Conservation?
The preservation and management of natural resources, aiming to maintain and protect air quality, nutrient levels, biodiversity, soil and water health. Conservation efforts span a wide range of activities, from habitat restoration to species management.
Conservation can be done on macro (preserving a rainforest), focusing on large-scale ecosystems and broad biodiversity protection, and micro scales (preserving a specific genome), targeting specific genetic resources within a population.
Conservation biology studies risks to organisms and how to mitigate them, applying principles from genetics, population dynamics, and ecology to understand anthropogenic impact and combat biodiversity loss.
Anthropogenic Impacts
Fragmentation of habitats, reducing the size and connectivity of natural areas and isolating populations.
Direct human/animal conflicts, such as hunting, poaching, and collisions with vehicles, leading to injury and mortality.
Spread of disease through livestock, transmitting pathogens to wild animals and causing outbreaks.
Introduction of alien species, disrupting ecosystems and outcompeting native species.
Encroachment by cities and agriculture, converting natural habitats into developed or agricultural land.
Overfishing, depleting fish stocks and disrupting marine ecosystems.
Pollution, contaminating air, water, and soil with harmful substances, affecting wildlife health and survival.
Zoos Contribution to Conservation
Zoos provide entertainment, education, conservation, and research, serving as centers for public engagement and scientific advancement.
Education of the public on the status of animals and plants, raising awareness about conservation issues and inspiring action.
Participation in breeding and management programmes (e.g., European Endangered Species Programmes (EEP)), helping to maintain genetic diversity and prevent extinctions.
Conducting research on animal behaviour, health, and reproduction, contributing to scientific knowledge and conservation strategies.
Areas of Zoo Research
Pure behaviour research, studying the natural behaviours of animals in captivity and in the wild.
Welfare assessment and measurement, evaluating the well-being of animals in zoos and identifying areas for improvement.
Personality assessment, examining individual differences in behaviour and temperament among animals.
Enrichment assessment, assessing the effectiveness of environmental enrichment strategies in promoting animal well-being.
Reproduction, studying reproductive behaviour and physiology to improve breeding success.
Social dynamics, investigating social interactions and group dynamics among animals.
Visitor effects, examining the impact of zoo visitors on animal behaviour and welfare.
Conservation and Behaviour: A Fragile Link?
Behaviour was once considered a ‘soft’ area of research, often undervalued in conservation efforts.
Awareness of the benefits of behaviour research has grown due to valuable research, demonstrating the importance of understanding animal behaviour for conservation success.
Change is slow, and there is still room for improvement in integrating behaviour research into conservation planning and management.
Sutherland’s (1998) 20 Areas
Small population extinctions: Understanding the factors that lead to the extinction of small populations, such as genetic drift and inbreeding.
Mating systems and inbreeding depression: Studying mating systems and their effects on genetic diversity and fitness.
Species isolation: Examining the causes and consequences of species isolation and developing strategies to promote gene flow.
Dispersal in fragmented populations: Understanding how animals move through fragmented landscapes and identifying ways to improve habitat connectivity.
Predicting the Consequences of Environmental Change: Using behavioural data to predict how animals will respond to environmental changes such as climate change and habitat loss.
Reducing predation: Developing strategies to reduce the impact of predators on vulnerable prey populations.
Retaining cultural skills (e.g., reintroductions): Ensuring that animals reintroduced into the wild have the necessary cultural skills to survive and reproduce.
Behavioural manipulations: Using behavioural techniques to manage and conserve wildlife populations.
Release schemes: Designing and implementing effective release schemes for captive-bred animals.
Habitat requirements: Identifying the specific habitat requirements of different species and managing habitats accordingly.
Minimum area necessary for reserves: Determining the minimum size of reserves needed to support viable populations of different species.
Captive Breeding (e.g., mate choice): Using captive breeding programs to maintain genetic diversity and increase population size.
Reproductive behaviour and physiology: Studying reproductive behaviour and physiology to improve breeding success.
Trade offs in habitat preference: Understanding how animals make decisions about habitat selection and managing habitats to meet their needs.
Measuring stressful conditions: Developing methods to measure stress in animals and identifying ways to reduce stress in captivity and in the wild.
Exploitation: Understanding the impacts of exploitation on wildlife populations and developing sustainable management strategies.
Increase in human population: Addressing the challenges posed by increasing human populations and their impact on wildlife.
Discounting: Considering the long-term consequences of conservation decisions and avoiding short-sighted approaches.
Increasing conservation concern: Raising public awareness about conservation issues and inspiring action.
Conserving behaviour: Recognizing the importance of conserving behaviour as an integral part of biodiversity conservation.
Angeloni et al. (2008) Study
Examined journals to see how often behaviour and conservation were cited, providing a quantitative assessment of the integration of these fields.
Keyword search for conservation in behaviour journals and vice versa, identifying the frequency of cross-referencing between the two fields.
Cross-examined journals to see how many times they cited each other, measuring the extent of collaboration and knowledge exchange.
Barriers to Integration (Angeloni et al., 2008)
Historical institutional separation of subject areas, leading to a lack of communication and collaboration between researchers.
Journals may contribute to separation by publishing research that is narrowly focused on either behaviour or conservation.
Behaviour journals rejecting conservation-focused articles as too applied, limiting the dissemination of practical applications of behaviour research.
Conservation journals rejecting behaviour articles not showing an immediate conservation link, neglecting the potential contributions of fundamental behaviour research.
Disciplines working on different scales (population vs. individual), creating challenges in integrating research findings and applying them to conservation management.
Time: Behaviour studies take a long time, but conservationists need quick solutions, creating a tension between the need for thorough research and the urgency of conservation action.
Berger-Tal et al., (2015) Study
Defined behavioural categories and conservation categories, providing a framework for analyzing the relationship between these fields.
Systematic search of literature from 1900-2014, capturing a comprehensive overview of research trends and patterns.
Categorised results and created heat maps, visually representing the strength and type of connections between different categories.
Determined the strength and type of connection between categories, identifying key areas of overlap and potential for integration.
Behaviors to Conserve
Reproductive Behaviours, crucial for maintaining population viability and genetic diversity.
Cultural Behaviours, reflecting learned traditions and social norms that contribute to species survival.
Social Behaviours, influencing group dynamics, cooperation, and communication.
Locomotory Behaviours, affecting movement patterns, dispersal, and habitat use.
Anti-predator Behaviours, protecting individuals from predators and influencing predator-prey dynamics.
Foraging/Hunting Behaviours, determining how animals acquire food and influencing ecosystem dynamics.
Reproductive Behaviours
Critical for keeping animals in captivity, ensuring the continuation of captive populations and maintaining genetic diversity.
Successful breeding relies on understanding courting behaviours, enabling researchers to create optimal breeding conditions.
Some animals prefer a selection of potential mates, reflecting complex social dynamics and mate choice preferences.
Other species depend on certain environmental conditions, highlighting the importance of habitat management and environmental control.
Cultural Behaviour
Vocal repertoires, reflecting regional dialects and communication patterns within a species.
Hunting techniques, varying based on local prey availability and learned strategies.
Foraging techniques, adapting to different food sources and environmental conditions.
Tool-use, demonstrating cognitive abilities and problem-solving skills.
Apes and cetaceans have cultural differences between groups based on behaviours and genetics, highlighting the role of learning and social transmission in shaping behaviour.
Case Studies
Reintroductions, aiming to restore populations to their native habitats.
Anti-Predator Training, teaching animals to recognize and avoid predators.
Head-Starting, protecting juvenile animals until they reach a certain stage of development.
Golden Lion Tamarins, a successful example of reintroduction and habitat restoration.
Quolls, using aversion training to protect them from poisonous cane toads.
Irish Examples, showcasing conservation efforts in Ireland.
Reintroductions
Terms: reintroductions, translocations, rewilding, encompassing a range of strategies for restoring populations and ecosystems.
Goal: increasing biodiversity and bolstering wild populations, enhancing ecosystem resilience and functionality.
Types: hard-release and soft-release, differing in the level of support provided to animals upon release.
Anti-Predator Training
Teaching animals kept in captivity how to watch out for and avoid predators, improving their survival prospects upon release.
Rowell et al., (2020) provide an in-depth analysis of predator-awareness training in terrestrial vertebrates.
Anti-Predator Training Cont.
Indirect stimulus: Olfaction, Auditory, using scent and sound cues to trigger anti-predator responses.
Direct stimulus: Predator exposure, providing direct encounters with predators to enhance learning.
Issues: Habituation, inability to associate stimulus, personality, posing challenges to the effectiveness of training.
Anti-Predator Training - Key Recommendations
Describe the wild system - Identify predation strategies of problem predators at release sites.
Identify appropriate anti-predator behaviours expected in the focal population.
Identify behavioural deficit in the captive population - Compare behavioural responses to predator stimuli in the captive population against wild observations, to identify specific behavioural deficits.
Determine if predator awareness training is appropriate - Predator awareness training is warranted only if there is a behavioural deficit in the captive population that can be addressed by training.
Design and implement training to address behavioural deficits - Base methods on species' learning traits (eg. social learning patterns) and include an untrained control.
Compare behaviour pre- and post-training - Compare behaviour within cohorts against an untrained control, and against the behaviour of a successful wild model.
Monitor post-release survival - Compare survivorship for trained individuals against untrained controls within each cohort, and at each release site.
Report project success on synthesis of training and release - Judge success by whether behavioural change, due to training, has reduced post-release mortality.
Head-Starting
Juvenile animals are given protection, normally in captivity, to allow them to reach a certain stage of development before being released, increasing their chances of survival.
Used in a variety of species, including turtles, fish, and birds, to enhance recruitment and population growth.
Head-Starting cont.
Thompson et al., (2020) report on the results of a head-starting programme on the population dynamics of Blanding’s Turtle.
Found that the long-term projects of head-starting changed population composition of mostly older animals to a more mixed population including more juveniles, promoting a more balanced age structure.
Issues; Resource heavy, Difficulty in tracking success after release, Balance between time spent in captivity for safety and loss of necessary behaviours, posing logistical and ethical challenges.
Golden Lion Tamarins
91 golden lion tamarin introduced (Leontopithecus rosalia) to native Brazilian forests in 1984.
33 survive in 1991. Losses/deaths from theft, predation, starvation and disease, highlighting the challenges of reintroduction.
Most losses/deaths occur from deficits in foraging skills, locomotion and orientation, underscoring the importance of pre-release training.
57 infants born and 38 survived – wild born offspring were found to be more independent, demonstrating the long-term success of the program.
The first generation needs the most support, post release provisioning, highlighting the importance of adaptive management.
One of the first studies showing evidence of how important behaviour is to the success of reintroductions. (Beck et al., 1991)
Solving Problems with Sausages
Quolls are a small predatory marsupial. Populations were devastated by the introductions of the poisonous cane toads.
Ongoing studies have looked at training quolls to avoid cane toads using nausea inducing medication laced into cane toad sausages.
This gives animals an unpleasant experience and association to the scent and taste of cane toad without the cane toad’s toxins. (Indigo et al., 2018)
What about Ireland?
Natterjack Toads, facing habitat loss and fragmentation.
Golden Eagles, subject to human-wildlife conflict.
White-Tailed Sea Eagles, recovering after reintroduction efforts.
Red/Grey Squirrel and Pine Marten, illustrating the complex dynamics of invasive species and native predators.
Natterjack Toads
One of only three extant Irish amphibians and the least populous.
Endangered in Ireland.
Restricted mostly to the Dingle Peninsula with a very small population in Wexford.
Habitat fragmentation, lack of available breeding ponds and climate change major drivers of decline.
Currently Fota Wildlife Park, Dingle Aquarium and the National Parks and Wildlife Services have an ongoing head-starting project for Natterjack toadlets.
Golden Eagle and White- Tailed Sea Eagle
Both species of eagle have been the focus of conservation efforts for decades.
One of the main hurdles facing the projects has been animal-human conflicts.
Mostly farmers fearing for the safety of livestock. This resulted in situations where poisoned bait was used and animals were lost.
In recent years, through discussion and education, these incidences have dwindled and eagle numbers, while small, do seem to be increasing. (Crowe et al., 2021)
Red Squirrel, Grey Squirrel and Pine Martens
Another example of invasions causing drastic decline. Grey squirrels outcompete reds and also introduced squirrel pox into the populations.
An interesting dynamic has been found though through the protection and management of Pine Martens in Ireland.
Pine Martens seem to target Grey Squirrels more easily and Grey Squirrels do not have the anti-predator behaviours that Red Squirrels do. This has led to somewhat of an equilibrium in Ireland. (Twining et al., 2020.)
Summary and Takeaways
Conservation and behaviour are connected in a wide array of research areas, forming a multidisciplinary approach to addressing conservation challenges.
Behaviour plays a crucial role in the success of conservation efforts, informing management strategies and enhancing outcomes.
The academic world is coming to accept and work towards further integration, but change is slow, requiring continued effort and collaboration.
Behaviour is one of many factors in a successful conservation project, highlighting the importance of holistic and integrated approaches.
References
Beck, B. B., Kleiman, D. G., Dietz, J. M., Castro, I., Carvalho, C., Martins, A., & Rettberg-Beck, B. (1991). Losses and reproduction in reintroduced golden lion tamarins, Leontopithecus rosalia. Dodo, Journal of Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust. Vol 20. 50-61.
Crowe, O., Tierney, T.D. and Burke, B. (2021), “Status of Rare Breeding Birds across the island of Ireland, 2013–2018”, Irish Birds, Vol. 43 No. 29–38, p. 11.
Indigo, N., Smith, J., Webb, J.K. and Phillips, B. (2018), “Not such silly sausages: Evidence suggests northern quolls exhibit aversion to toads after training with toad sausages”, Austral Ecology, Vol. 43 No. 5 , pp. 592–601.
Rowell, T.A.A.D., Magrath, M.J.L. and Magrath, R.D. (2020), “Predator-awareness training in terrestrial vertebrates: Progress, problems and possibilities”, Biological Conservation, Vol. 252, p. 108740.
Thompson, D., Glowacki, G., Ludwig, D., Rachel, R., Kuhns, A.R., Klatt Golba, C. and King, R. (2020), “Benefits of Head‐starting for Blanding’s Turtle Size Distributions and Recruitment”, Wildlife Society Bulletin, Vol. 44(1), pp. 57–67.
Twining, J.P., Montgomery, W.I. and Tosh, D.G. (2020), “The dynamics of pine marten predation on red and grey squirrels”, Mammalian Biology, Vol. 100 No. 3 , pp. 285–293.