Imperialism and the Spanish-American War Notes

Organizing Principles (1890-1945)

• Between 1890 and 1945, the United States largely abandoned its tradition of isolationism, driven by:
  • Imperialism's allure at the end of the century.
  • Humanitarian and democratic motives for entering World War I and World War II.
• The U.S. government aimed to be more accountable and enact social welfare legislation, with a brief exception.
  • Progressive reformers sought to curb big business excesses.
  • New Dealers responded to the Great Depression's effects.
• The 1920s: A paradoxical period.
  • Disillusionment with the Progressive Era and World War I led to a retreat from reforms and global involvement.
  • Backlash against modern and foreign influences.
  • Simultaneously, forward-looking social and material innovation, improved living standards, and significant cultural movements occurred.

Topics

• Imperialism: Debates.
• The Spanish-American War.
• The Progressives.
• World War I: Military and Diplomacy.
• World War I: Home Front.
• 1920s: Innovations in Communication and Technology.
• 1920s: Cultural and Political Controversies.
• The Great Depression.
• The New Deal.
• Interwar Foreign Policy.
• World War II: Mobilization.
• World War II: Military.
• Postwar Diplomacy.

Imperialism and the Spanish-American War

• Imperialism might seem disconnected from internal U.S. developments in the late 19th century.
• The U.S. forged a national market economy with regional specialization (the West as a food producer).
• Imperialism was a logical outcome of industrialism, with the national market economy laying its foundation.
  • American farms and factories became highly productive.
• Post-Civil War industrialism fundamentally changed America internally, enabling a different foreign policy.
• Early U.S. foreign policy focused on commercial relations, evolving from colonial trade with England.
• The Continental Congress created the "model treaty," symbolizing objectives like:
  • Free trade with all countries.
  • No political alliances or military connections.
  • Free trade as the best protector of nations, fostering friendly agreements without military/political obligations.
• Exceptions to this policy existed:
  • War of 1812: Defending honor.
  • Mexican War: Acquiring land for "manifest destiny."
  • Civil War: Resolving the paradox of American identity.
• These conflicts primarily concerned U.S. identity and security.
• Imperialism, in contrast, is defined as:
  • "A policy of extending a country’s power and influence through colonization, use of military force, or other means."
• Colonization is not always necessary for imperialism.
• The Mexican War could be considered an example of imperialism, but the key difference lies in the ultimate purpose.
• The Spanish-American War resulted from America’s new "industrialized" identity.
• Imperialism was more overtly about exploiting imperialized places for American benefit rather than preserving American identity.
• American policy had largely been defined by neutrality and relative isolation.
• Major changes were needed to initiate a new course of foreign policy action.

Causes of Imperialism

Major Causes

• "Expand or explode": The need to acquire access to foreign markets to sell American industrial and agricultural goods became a foundational cause.
  • The American national market economy overproduced, and the population couldn't consume at a sufficient rate.
  • Without foreign markets, the economy would slow down, hurting businesses and farmers, and leading to worker layoffs.
• "Everyone else is doin’ it": Observation of other nations grasping control of parts of the world.
  • Industrialization was a global phenomenon, with European empires (England, France, Germany) and Japan leading the way.
  • The world is finite; once a power takes control of a place, it's "off the board."
  • Competition created a race and a sense of urgency for the U.S. to become a "world power."
• "American exceptionalism/paternalism": Assuming American cultural superiority and the idea that imperialism would benefit those imperialized.
  • Paternalism: "Father knows best."
  • Assumes the imperialized place is "backward" and offers nothing culturally significant, only economically (natural resources and markets).
  • Racial assumptions stemmed from massive industrial growth.
  • Social Darwinism: Appropriateness for "better" countries like the U.S. to take hold of "lesser" places.
  • Gospel of Wealth: Sense of "giving back" woven into American exceptionalism/paternalism.
  • Belief that American ideas of religion, education, democracy, and sanitation would uplift "poor brown people."
  • The "white man’s burden" cause; imperialism as "missionary work."
  • This objective is now considered unconscionable.
  • Not widely appreciated or adopted by those imperialized, with natives largely resisting paternalistic missionary efforts.
• "Yellow journalism": Sensationalized news to sell papers.
  • Yellow journalists (Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hurst) spun tales of foreign intrigue and injustice that required American military might.
  • Deployed in service of the U.S.’s entry into the Spanish-American War.
  • "Yellow" journalism: Papers that printed cartoon strips (e.g., "Hogan’s Alley" with "Mickey Dugan--the yellow kid").
  • Papers sold imperialism as noble and heroic.

Minor Causes

• "Control the sea, control the world": Importance of naval power.
  • The assistant secretary of the navy (future President Teddy Roosevelt) was a strong believer in naval power.
  • Alfred Thayer Mahan's book, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History was a history and "playbook" on creating naval supremacy.
  • Trans-ocean ships made boats more swift.
• American Tariff policy: Congress erected high tariffs to protect big businesses from foreign competition.
  • American businessmen had settled and started businesses outside of America (e.g., Hawaii).
  • Their product (e.g., Hawaiian SUGAR) was taxed with a hefty tariff when entering the American marketplace.
  • Acquiring influence over foreign territories where American businessmen operate (e.g., Hawaii) would avoid these tariffs.

Where to Imperialize?

• Minor Steps Before the Spanish-American War:
  • The U.S. tried to establish friendly commercial relations with Latin American countries (the "big sister policy").
  • The U.S. mediated a border dispute between Britain and Venezuela, asserting itself in a Monroe Doctrine-esque manner.
• The Spanish-American War (1898): Real beginning of America becoming a "super-power."
  • The result of this war put America on the world stage.
  • Spain had colonized Cuba for centuries, and Cubans revolted in the mid/late 1890s.
  • American tariffs played an indirect role, as Spain controlled Cuba’s struggling sugar plantations.
  • U.S. tariffs hurt the ability of Spanish sugar producers in Cuba to sell their sugar in the U.S. market, weakening Spanish control.
  • Spain tightened the screws on Cuban rebels, putting them into oppressive concentration camps.
  • The U.S. naval boat, the Maine, mysteriously exploded in Havana harbor.
  • The "yellow" press demonized the Spanish and advocated for U.S. involvement to free Cubans from Spanish misrule.

McKinley and the Spanish-American War

• President McKinley, sensitive to public opinion, felt he had to get involved.
• He aimed to be the "paternalistic" savior for the Cubans and remove the oppressive Spanish.
• The U.S. initially stated it would not imperialize Cuba after liberating it.
• The Spanish-American war was quick, but the U.S. was given control over former Spanish territories of Puerto Rico, Guam, the Philippines, and Cuba in the Treaty of Paris (1898).
• The U.S. found it tough to let these places go, given the pursuit of imperialism by others, economic benefits, and the idea of giving the little brown folks some old fashioned American righteousness.

Public Debate on Imperialism

• The acquisition of influence over new territories touched off a major public debate in the U.S.
• The essence of the debate was whether imperialism was right and whether the U.S. should "imperialize" these places.

Pro-Imperialists' Arguments

• America/Americans are chosen people (history of glory).
• The U.S. has an obligation (White man’s burden).
• The U.S. can commercially profit.
• The U.S. would give Filipinos/Cubans their freedom if they could handle it.
• If the U.S. doesn’t take this land, some other country will.
• Oceans don’t separate, they connect (Alfred Thayer Mahan).
• Imperialism is not a new policy; it connects with historical tradition and leaders.
• "…It is a glorious history our God has bestowed upon His chosen people…"
  • Argument: God is involved and supports their cause.
• "Shall the American people continue their march toward the commercial supremacy of the world?"
  • Argument: It is their duty to become commercially supreme.
• "The rule of liberty that all just government derives its authority from the consent of the governed, applies only to those who are capable of self government"
  • Argument: Some people aren't capable of governing themselves.
• "If England can govern foreign lands, so can America. If Germany can govern foreign lands, so can America"
  • Argument: It's acceptable because other countries were doing it.
• "Jefferson, the first Imperialist of the Republic-Jefferson acquired that imperial territory which swept from the Mississippi to the mountains, from Texas to the British possessions, and the march of the flag began!"
  • Argument: Connects with historical tradition and leaders like Jefferson.

Anti-Imperialists' Arguments

• Imperialism is contrary to the "American Creed."
  • All people have the right to "self-determination" (to have consent in how they are governed).
• Despotism abroad could lead to despotism at home.
• Contrary to previous foreign policy.
  • Isolation, neutrality are traditional policies; this is a reversal.
• America is historically anti-imperial/colonial.
  • If the U.S. became imperialists, it would be hypocritical.
• These new territories are too far away to be controlled effectively anyway!
• Profiting from new territory in a financial way is immoral and reveals the dubious intent of imperialists.
• The biggest counter-argument was that imperialism was antithetical to U.S. ideals and U.S. history.

Outcome and Imperialistic Maneuvers

• The pro-Imperialists won the public debate, and America imperialized.
• America had promised to "free" the Cubans, but the forces of imperialism were too strong.

Cuban Imperialism

• At the beginning of the war, America had promised not to imperialize.
• This promise was in writing, called the "Teller Amendment."
• The U.S. supervised the creation of the Cuban Constitution and required they insert the "Platt Amendment," allowing the U.S. to intervene in Cuban affairs for almost any reason.
• The Cubans were also forced to cede territory on the island for American naval bases, one of which became the infamous Guantanamo Bay base.

Puerto Rican Imperialism

• The U.S. treated Puerto Rico similarly to Cuba.
• In 1900, Congress passed the Foracker Act, giving Puerto Rico a "limited popular government."
• The U.S. committed to paying for infrastructure in Puerto Rico.

Filipino Imperialism

• The Philippines became the real "water-cooler"/hot topic because they were so far away and densely populated.
• The assumption that Filipinos couldn’t handle freedom was the strongest.
• It necessitated action to secure control over the large territory.
• Letting go of the Philippines would be almost irresponsible.
• The U.S. initiated its most ambitious "assimilation/civilization" attempt of all, called "benevolent assimilation."
• Filipinos resisted this.
• During the Spanish-American War, Filipinos and American military personnel worked together to fight Spain.
• When it became clear to the Filipinos that the U.S. never intended to give them self-determination, they turned on the U.S., led by Amilio Aguinaldo.
• The Philippine War (1889-1902) ensued.
• During this war, the U.S. herded Filipino rebels into concentration camps.

Constitutional Implications of Imperialism

• The question was whether the people the U.S. imperialized had Constitutional rights.
• No Constitutional rights, in any form, were ever given to those people the U.S. imperialized.
• The Supreme Court ruled this in the "Insular cases" (1901).
• The Insular Cases established the Constitutionality of imperialism by setting the legal precedent that just because America controls a place it doesn’t mean the people there are Americans.
• They didn’t let go of the Philippines until 1946!

Imperialistic Loose Ends

• For almost their entire history, the United States advocated for an “Open Door” policy with China.
• American doesn’t want to make an effort to try to have exclusive control over China, but also America doesn’t want any other countries to make that effort either.
• These were reminders to other imperialistic minded countries that there was enough profitable trade for all to enjoy, and that no one country should seek to exercise exclusive control over China.
• This was a rematch of McKinley v. WJ Bryan, except this time there was absolutely no talk of silver or inflation.
• Bryan tried to paint McKinley with classic anti-imperialist criticism.
• He essentially said McKinley made Filipinos into “slaves.”
• Imperialism was popular, and McKinley won reelection.

The Story of the Panama Canal

• The AP Curriculum book doesn’t make a big deal about this “second phase” of Imperialism, but you really should be aware of it.
• President Teddy Roosevelt (who took over after McKinley was assassinated) wanted a canal in the isthmus of Panama.
• It's hard to cross our continent by land (especially before those transcontinental railroads made it easier.
• Because the U.S. has far flung territories all over the map (Hawaii, Guam, Philippines, Cuba, Puerto Rico) they need to be able to protect them, move supplies back and forth, etc.
• Maintaining imperialistic holdings required a canal.
• Building of the Panama canal cemented Roosevelt’s reputation as a jingoist.
• Jingoism: "Super aggressive" nationalistic foreign policy."
• Roosevelt’s line, “speak softly and carry a big stick” applies.
• Roosevelt encouraged Panama to rebel against Columbia.
• Through some dirty tricks (like paying off Columbian soldiers not to fight the Panamanian rebels and physically restraining Colombian soldiers from crossing into Panama to suppress the rebellion) the Panamanian revolution was successful.
• The United States quickly moved to recognize Panama as a legitimate country and then days later they did a deal with Panama which gave us exclusive control over a canal zone.
• It's hard to argue that Roosevelt didn’t just rob Columbia of their land (which became Panama) and built a canal.

The Roosevelt Corollary

• The robbing of Columbia by the United States is considered the first example of a darker turn in our relationship with Latin America, though Latin America might argue that the relationship soured way back during the Mexican War.
• Historians often call this new relationship with Latin American the “Roosevelt Corollary'' to the Monroe Doctrine.
• That basically means the US can intervene in the affairs of Latin America to prevent other countries from intervening.
• See how it’s a kinda more aggressive Monroe Doctrine (remember, that Doctrine said, “non-colonization, non-intervention” and basically supported the independence and self-determination of Latin American countries).
• The motivation for this was two-fold:
  • Protecting their geographical position in this imperialistic world.
  • Preventing possible imperialism of Latin America by European countries.
• The US feared these European “bill collectors'' would get their foot in the door and never leave.
• From the perspective of the Latin American countries, TR’s tactics were violent and aggressive.
• World War I is a huge conflict that Americans entered in 1916.
• President Woodrow Wilson really didn’t really want to get into the war and he was trying to be an anti-imperialist.