Political Stability, Demographics, and Environmental Risks Study Notes

Origins: Conflicts began in the $1500s$ Protestant Reformation. King Henry VIII established the Church of England in $1534$ . Irish Catholics faced land seizure during the Plantations.
Repression: Oliver Cromwell invaded in $1649$ . Penal Laws later stripped Catholics of land ownership, voting rights, and education.
The Orange Order: Founded in $1795$ to support Protestant rule; known for annual marches celebrating William of Orange that often led to sectarian violence.
Partition ( $1921$ ): After the War of Independence, Ireland split into the Irish Free State ( $26$ counties) and Northern Ireland ( $6$ counties, part of the UK).

Civil Rights: In the $1960s$ , the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) demanded equality in voting, housing, and jobs.
Key Violent Events:
- Battle of the Bogside ( $1969$ ): Major riots in Derry.
- Bloody Sunday ( $1972$ ): British soldiers killed $13$ unarmed Catholic protesters.
The Combatants: The IRA (Irish Republican Army) fought for a united Ireland; the UVF (Ulster Volunteer Force) fought to remain in the UK.
Current Status: The Good Friday Agreement ( $1998$ ) ended most violence. The $2021$ Census showed Catholics as the largest religious group at $45.7\%$ , compared to Protestants at $43.5\%$ .

Environment: Political instability (war, corruption, weak governance) provides a vacuum for extremist groups to operate.
Objectives: Terrorist groups use violence to create psychological fear, influence policy, or destabilize societies.
Methods of Attack:
- Vehicle Attacks: High accessibility and mass casualties in public spaces.
- CBRN Threats: Chemical, Biological, and Nuclear threats are high-impact, causing widespread panic and long-term environmental damage.

Stakeholders: Canada, Russia, United States (Alaska), Denmark (Greenland), and Norway.
Legal Framework: The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) allows for an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) up to $200\,\text{nautical miles}$ .
Strategic Interests: Melting ice has opened shipping routes (Northwest Passage) and access to untapped oil, gas, and mineral reserves.
Canada's Stance: Claims the Arctic Archipelago and Northwest Passage as internal waters; focuses on Indigenous rights and military presence.

Evolution: Countries move from high birth/death rates to low birth/death rates as they develop.
Key Drivers: Improvements in healthcare (lower mortality), female education (lower birth rates), and access to contraception.
Population Pyramids:
- Expanding: Wide base; high birth rates; typical of developing nations.
- Stationary: Even shape; stable population; low birth/death rates.
- Contracting: Narrow base; aging population; potential for future decline.

China: Utilized the One-Child Policy ( $1979$ - $2015$ ). Resulted in a shrinking workforce, gender imbalance, and a rapidly aging population.
India: Utilized family planning and education rather than strict enforcement; maintains a large youth population but faces pressure on infrastructure and urban employment.

Push Factors: War, poverty, unemployment, and natural disasters.
Pull Factors: Better jobs, safety, and higher living standards.
Impacts:
- Receiving Countries: Economic growth vs. infrastructure pressure.
- Sending Countries: Remittances vs. "brain drain" (loss of skilled labor).

Soil Degradation: Occurs via erosion, chemical salinization, and physical compaction. Desertification results from land overuse and climate change.
The Cod Moratorium ( $1992$ ): The Canadian government closed the Northern Cod fishery in Newfoundland due to overfishing by modern trawlers. This led to mass unemployment and population decline in rural areas.
Exxon Valdez Spill ( $1989$ ): An oil tanker struck a reef in Prince William Sound, Alaska. The disaster killed thousands of marine animals and led to stricter regulations, including improved tanker designs and response systems.