Comprehensive Study Guide to Medieval Spanish Literature and the Cantar de Mío Cid

Historical and Social Context of the Middle Ages

The Middle Ages is a period spanning from the $V$ to the $XV$ centuries. This era is characterized by a deep sense of religiosity where biblical figures are represented more frequently than the lives of saints. The society was teocrática (theocratic, from Teo-God and cratos-people), meaning power was concentrated in the hands of the monarchy and the clergy. Within this social framework, feudalism was the dominant system: vassals, who held no power, were subservient to the feudal lord, who held authority. The cultural center of the period was the monastery, existing within an intercultural context involving Christian, Muslim, and Jewish cultures.

Following the fall of Rome, the Visigoths established an independent kingdom in Hispania at the beginning of the $VI$ century. In the year $711$, Muslims entered the Iberian Peninsula and conquered almost the entire territory except for a northern fringe. In the north, small Christian kingdoms resistant to the invasion began a progressive southward expansion known as the Reconquista. This process lasted several centuries, concluding in $1492$ with the fall of Granada, the last Muslim stronghold.

Origins and Chronology of Spanish Literature

The origins of literature in the Spanish language can be divided into three distinct stages. In the Early Middle Ages (Alta Edad Media, $V$ to $X$ centuries), works were primarily written in classical Latin. During the High Middle Ages (Plena Edad Media, $XI$ to $XIII$ centuries), Romance languages (derived from Latin) emerged, epic poetry developed (notably the Cantar de Mío Cid), and the literary technique of courtly love evolved. Finally, in the Late Middle Ages (Baja Edad Media, $XIV$ to $XV$ centuries), more complex forms of writing appeared, such as novels of chivalry.

Characteristics of Medieval Literature: Popular vs. Learned Schools

Medieval literature is split between popular and cultured traditions. Popular literature was represented by the Mester de Juglaría ($XII$ to $XIV$ centuries). Its style consisted of cantares de gesta and epic poems (which are narrative, not lyrical poetry). These were disseminated orally through memorization techniques with a focus on transmitting the values of the era. The most important work of this tradition is the Cantar de Mío Cid.

By contrast, cultured literature was associated with the Mester de Clerecía, produced by the clergy. These works were written in monasteries using the cuaderna vía technique for a didactic and moralizing purpose. They utilized specific stanzas and produced important works such as Los Milagros de Nuestra Señora and the Libro de Buen Amor.

First Written Texts in the Castilian Language

The earliest written texts in Castilian were the glosas. These were explanations or commentaries added to complex, usually religious, texts written in Latin. The first samples were found in the monastery of San Millán de la Cogolla (La Rioja) and are estimated to have been written in the $X$ century. These are known specifically as the Glosas Emilianenses.

The Epic Tradition and the Mester de Juglaría

The epic is a heroic narrative written in verse to facilitate memorization. It presents the deeds (gestas) of an individual or collective hero whose actions are of interest to the community. This period was one of national formation; the heroic spirit of the epic animated the collective identity. It also served as a means of transmitting news via the juglares. While based on reality, the narrative is often embellished with literary details.

Mester means work or task, so Mester de Juglaría refers to the task performed by juglares. This literature was aimed at a popular audience, transmitted orally, and usually performed in public streets. A juglar was a person who orally narrated news, poetry, and feats. The works are anonymous, and the juglar was often accompanied by others who performed acrobatics, dances, or music.

Cantar de Gesta: European and Spanish Context

Cantares de gesta developed across Europe during the $XI$ and $XII$ centuries. Notable examples include Beowulf in England, Chanson de Roland in France, and the Nibelungenlied in Germany. These works were sung or recited by juglares and, while primarily oral, some were eventually written down. The hero represented the virtues of a people, reaffirming national identity. They are characterized by verses with assonant rhyme (vowels only) and irregular metrics.

In Spain, few cantares de gesta are preserved, and most are incomplete. Examples include the Cantar de Roncesvalles, Mocedades de Rodrigo, and the Cantar de Mío Cid. Others have reached the modern era through medieval chronicles, such as La Condesa traidora or Los siete infantes de Lara.

El Cantar de Mío Cid

The central hero is Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, known as the Cid Campeador. The narrative follows the loss and subsequent recovery of his honor. The work blends historical facts with fictional elements, often using exaggeration to capture the reader's attention. As a literary source, it employs realism without needing to reflect objective historical truth entirely. Key concepts in the work include honor (unbreakable values), honra (recognition of honor), and hidalgo ("son of something," referring to honor derived from lineage or "limpieza de sangre").

The Cid is exiled by King Alfonso and decides to recover his honor by regaining royal favor through glory in battle. The work recounts his journey from Castile to Valencia and his return to the court. While a copy from $1207$ by Per Abat exists, the original authorship is earlier. The structure is divided into three cantos:

1. Cantar del destierro: The Cid is unjustly accused of stealing from King Alfonso VI and must leave Vivar. After bidding farewell to his wife and daughters, he defeats the Moors and sends part of the spoils to the king.

2. Cantar de las bodas: The Cid conquers Valencia from the Moorish king of Morocco. King Alfonso VI forgives him and arranges the marriages of the Cid's daughters to the Infantes de Carrión.

3. Cantar de la afrenta de Corpes: The Infantes, ridiculed for their cowardice, take revenge by humiliating and abandoning their wives in Corpes. The Cid seeks justice, his men defeat the Infantes, and the daughters eventually marry the Infantes of Navarre and Aragon.

Key themes include honor and reputation (the primary theme), loyalty (between the Cid, his vassals, and the King), exile and return (symbolizing the struggle for justice), and heroism (the Cid as the perfect Christian and Castilian hero). The work uses archaic vocabulary, epic epithets, and long, irregular, assonant verses divided by a cesura.

The Romancero and Popular Lyric

Romances are short epic poems composed to be recited to music. They consist of an indefinite number of octosyllabic ($8$-syllable) verses with assonant rhyme in even lines. Old romances (romancero viejo) date from the late $XIV$ to $XV$ centuries and are anonymous fragments of cantares de gesta that people memorized and sang independently. Later, cultured authors like Cervantes and Lope de Vega created romances nuevos.

Types of old romances include epic romances (about the Cid or Fernán González), frontier romances (Moors vs. Christians), chivalric romances (Charlemagne, King Arturo), and novelistic romances. Their style combines narration with dialogue, focusing on drama with few descriptions or moral lessons.

Other popular lyrics include:

1. Jarchas: Brief poems in Mozarabic at the end of longer Arabic/Hebrew poems (Moaxajas), usually about love. These are the earliest manifestations of European lyric ($XI$ century).

2. Cantigas galaico-portuguesas: Sung by troubadours and juglares in royal courts ($XIII-XIV$ centuries).

3. Villancicos: Castilian secular compositions ($XV$ century) related to daily activities like harvesting or weddings.

Mester de Clerecía and its Major Authors

Mester de Clerecía developed in the $XIII$ and $XIV$ centuries as a cultured alternative to juglaría. It introduced authorship, used the cuaderna vía technique (four $14$-syllable "Alejandrino" verses with consonant rhyme), and had a didactic-moral purpose.

Gonzalo de Berceo was the first known author of this school. His works include doctrinal pieces (Del sacrificio de la misa), hagiographies (Vida de San Millán), and Marian works (Los Milagros de Nuestra Señora). The latter consists of $25$ miracles categorized by the Virgin rewarding/punishing, intervening for forgiveness, or conversion. Each miracle follows a cycle of temptation, fall, and miracle.

The Libro de Buen Amor ($1330$) by Juan Ruiz, Archpriest of Hita, is the peak of this school. It is a fictionalized autobiography exploring the tension between "loco amor" (profane, carnal love) and "buen amor" (love of God). It features characters like the troteconventos (procuress) and allegorical figures like Don Carnal and Doña Cuaresma.

Medieval Prose and its Development

Until the $XIII$ century, prose was mostly in Latin. Development began with short historical texts. King Alfonso X "The Wise" gave a massive boost to Castilian by making it the official language and fostering the Toledo School of Translators, where scholars from three cultures (Christian, Muslim, Jewish) translated Latin, Arabic, and Hebrew works.

In the $XIV$ century, Don Juan Manuel emerged as a writer with a clear sense of authorship. His masterpiece, El conde Lucanor ($1335$), consists of $51$ examples or tales. Each story follows the same structure: Count Lucanor asks his advisor Patronio for advice, Patronio tells a story with a lesson, and Don Juan Manuel summarizes the moral in a couplet.

Transition to the Renaissance: La Celestina

Published around $1499$ by Fernando de Rojas, La Celestina (originally Tragicomedia de Calisto y Melibea) marks the end of the medieval period. It blends medieval ideology and courtly love with Renaissance elements. The plot involves Calisto, a noble who uses the services of the old procuress Celestina to seduce Melibea. The greed of the characters leads to a tragic end: Celestina is murdered by Calisto's servants, Calisto falls to his death from a tower, and Melibea commits suicide.

Characters are "round," possessing psychological depth. Celestina is a manipulator with many trades (healer, procuress, witch); Calisto parodies the courtly love hero; and Melibea evolves from innocence to passionate tragedy. The work explores themes of greed, carnal pleasure, and the parody of love, serving as a cautionary tale against trusting such influence over the word of God.