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3 weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation

Couldn't tax, no executive to enforce laws, too difficult to amend or change

3/5 Compromise

Counted enslaved people for votes to comprise for the southern need for more representation

Abigail Adams

First Lady to John Adams; advocated for women's rights early in the republic when Constitution was drafted

African Americans during revolutionary war?

British offered freedom to African Americans. Eventually, around 5,000 African Americans served alongside the Patriots.

Albany Plan of Union

Proposed joint colonial government for defense and taxes by 7 colonies during French and Indian War, failed due to lack of funding, but set precedent for colonial unity

Alien and sedition acts

Series of laws passed in 1798 by the United States Congress by Federalist Party, aimed at restricting citizenship of foreigners and limiting criticism of the government. Very unpopular

Anti-Federalists

Opponents of the ratification of the U.S. Constitution, arguing that it gave too much power to the federal government. They advocated for a Bill of Rights later in the Constitution.

Articles of confederation

First constitution of the United States, adopted in 1777 and ratified in 1781. They established a loose union of states with a weak central government, granting most power to the individual states

Bill of Rights

First 10 Amendments to the US Constitution written to guarantee individual rights; written to appease anti-Federalists like James Madison and Thomas Jefferson

Boston Massacre

Incident where British troops fired on crowd of angry Bostonians, causing an accidental shooting; massive propoganda victory for anti-British colonists

checks and balances

Power of each branch would be limited by the powers of the others, for example Presidential Veto

Committees of Correspondence

Network of committees in various colonies which circulated reports of the British undermining American liberties

Common Sense

Pamphlet by Thomas Paine which advocated independence to colonists from Britain in simple, easy-to-understand language; effective in convincing much of the public to independence causeac

Connecticut Plan/ Great Compromise

A Constitutional compromise that established the Senate with equal state representation and the House of Representatives based on population

Continentials

During 1775-1777, a currency called "continentals" circulated. When British occupied American ports, their value plummeted, rendering them worthless.

debate on the bill of rights

The debate surrounding the inclusion of a Bill of Rights in the U.S. Constitution. The Federalists argued that a bill of rights was unnecessary while the Anti-Federalists insisted it was essential for protecting individual liberties

Declaration Act

Act which declared Parliament alone had the right to levy taxes after Stamp Act was repealed in 1766

Democratic Republican Party

First politiical party. Support by Thomas Jefferson, opposed Hamilton Financial Program, Strictly follow constitution, Supported by South an West

Economic Problems with the Aritlcles of Confederation

Weak government wasn't able to collect taxes and couldn't regulate internal trade; resulting in economic weakness as states bickered amongst themselves

Electoral college system

Originally in Constitution, each state (though it's legislature) appoints electors who formally elect the President and Vice President. The system was designed to limit some of the power of a direct popular election

Enlightenment

17th-18th century European movement emphasizing reason and human behavior that included deism, rationalism, and the social contract

Fedarlism

a system with a strong but limited central government adopted after the Articles of Confederation

Federalist party

First political party. Supported Hamilton's Financial Program. Loosely interpret constitution, mainly supported by North

French and Indian War

The decisive war which cemented British control of the Americas at the expense of the French and laid foundation for British-colonial tension

Great Compromise

Compromise during the Constitutional Convention where both the House of Representatives (which favored large states) and the Senate (which favored smaller ones) were adopted together

Hamilton's Financial Program

1. Pay off the national debt and assume state debts 2. Protective tariff 3. Create a national bank

Intolerable Acts

In retaliation for Boston Tea Party, series of laws restricting economic activity and civil rights in Boston and securing direct British control

Jay Treaty

Treaty by Chief Justice Jay that negotiated an end to British troops in America and secured American neutrality; very unpopular with US public as it said nothing about US ship impressment and turned against France

Judiciary Act of 1789

Established a Supreme Court with one chief justice and five associate justices, 13 district federal courts were also established with lesser judicial powers than the Supreme Court.

Kentucky and Virgnia Resolutions

A state could nullify federal law if the federal government broke the compact. Also took stance stating that the Alien and Sedition Acts were unconstitutional

land ordinance of 1785

Bill passed by Congress under the Aritlces of Confederation that split up land in the west and designated land for public education

National Bank

Depositing government funds and print banknotes to provide a stable US currency, supported by North, opposed by Anti-Federalists

New Jersey Plan

This constitutional plan proposed a single legislature with equal representation for each state. Favored smaller states.

northwest ordinance of 1787

Most important law passed under the Articles of Confederation; setup system where new states created from the Northwest territory, prohibited slavery in the region, and granted it limited self-governance

Olive Branch Petition

Colonists wanted peace yet the right to keep their colonial rights, so they set this to King George, who dismmissed the petition and passed the Phrobitiory Act, hich halted all trade between Britain and the colonists immediatly.

Pontiac's Rebellion

Rebellion of Native American Chief Pontiac against British encroachment; distrust of colonials caused British to send the army, deepening their financial crisis

Proclamation of Neutrality 1793

Declaration of neutrality where US would stay out of the French Revolution

Proclomation of 1763

Effort to ensure peace between Natives and colonists by declaring line in the Appalachian Mountains no colonist could settle across; colonists hated it

Public Land Act

Established orderly procedure for dividing and selling federal lands at moderate prices, made it easier to add new states to Union

Quartering Act (1765)

Act requiring colonists to provide food and housing for British soldiers in the colonies

ratification of Constitution, How easy was it to do? what did it take?

Process by which Constitution was adopted across the United States; required numerous compromises like the Great Compromise (creating modern Congress) and the 3/5ths compromise (relating to representation in Congress and taxes)

Republican Motherhood

Societal structure where women taught children republican values in the home; first major movement for women in society

Salutary neglect

British policy where they had little direct control in the colonies and didn't enforce many trade laws; ended after Peace of Paris

Seperation of powers

dividing power among different branches of government, between executive, legislative, and judicial branch. Allowed for no abuse by one certain power.

seperation of powers, examples

Executive, legislative, and judicial branches with checks and balances; e.g., Senate appoints judges, judiciary reviews government actions

shays rebellion

Farmers were angered by taxes and fought against the Massachusetts militia; This highlighted the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation

Significance of the cotton gin

This invention could quickly process cotton and therefore made it more profitable leading to a desire to increase the number of slaves in the south

Sons and Daughters of Liberty

a violent secret society formed to resist British taxation in the American colonies before the Revolution, particularly targeting the Stamp Act. They employed tactics such as torture against tax collectors

Stamp Act

British law placing taxes on printed paper goods; first direct tax directly on people instead of just a tariff

Stamp Act Congress

gathering of colonial representatives in 1765 to protest British taxation without colonial consent. They produced the "Declaration of Rights and Grievances," asserting that only colonial assemblies had the right to impose taxes. This event helped unite the colonies against British policies

strengths of Articles of Confederation

Document provided a limited power for federal government, and introduced too much power to the states in congress

Sugar Act (1764)

Bill that placed taxes on imported sugar and enforced Navigation Acts more harshly; ended Salutary Neglect

The Delegates of the first continental congress

Attending the convention, were wealthy white men

The federalists papers

A collection of 85 articles and essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay to support the ratification of the Constitution.

Three-Fifths compromise

A compromise which determined that three-fifths of the slave population would be counted for determining direct taxation and representation in the House of Representatives. It was a pivotal agreement in the debates over representation and slavery.

Treaty of Paris

Treaty that ended the Revolutionary Wars where Britain withdrew from America and recognized it as a nation; not properly enforced due to weakness of Articles of Confederation

Two Term Tradition

A majority of presidents would serve for 2 terms then exit office voluntarily, however, Franklin Roosevelt broke this tradition by being elected for a 3rd term

Virginia plan

This Constitutional plan proposed a strong central government with a bicameral legislature, favoring representation based on a state's population. Favored large states

weakness of articles

Article of Confederations restricted power of the government, not allowing a standing army, tax collection, and allowed a single-state, no matter how large to veto any decision made

Whiskey Rebellion

Direct taxes on whiskey, Pennyslvanian farmers refused to pay the federal tax and rebelled. Washington placed 15,000 state militia to counter rebellion. Proved Government would enforce laws

Why was Battle of Saratoga significant?

This battle convinced France to join the war for American independence against the British

Writ of Assistance

A general license to search colonist's home without the need for a judge's warrant; comprised enforcement portion of the Townshed Act

American Federation of Labor

Labor union formed to fight for skilled workers' rights through collective bargaining and strikes

Anti Trust Movement

Aimed to curb monopolistic power and promote fair competition, culminating in legislation such as the Sherman Antitrust Act in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Assassination of President Garfield

1881 killing of President Garfield by a disgruntled office-seeker, sparking calls for civil service reform due to issues of political patronage.

Atlanta Compromise

An agreement by Booker T Washington that proposed African Americans temporarily accepting segregation in exchange for economic, vocational, and educational advancement in the South

Battle of Wounded Knee

At Wounded Knee Creek, U.S. troops demanded Sioux surrender their weapons, lthrough violence, resulting in 150-300 Lakota Sioux deaths. contributing to loss of land, rights,and cultural identity of natives.

Bessemer process

Process in late 19th century, using air to purify iron to steel, making steel affordable and efficient, driving industrial growth

Bland-Allison Act

Laws that were created through prominent farming movement that were designed to limit the amount that railroads could charge. Mostly in Minnesota, Iowa, Wisconsin, and Illinois.

Booker T Washington

African American leader of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, advocated for economic self-reliance and vocational education as the pathway to equality and social advancement for African Americans, famously articulating his philosophy in the Atlanta Compromise speech of 1895, emphasizing practical skills over immediate civil rights agitation.

Cattle drives

Early western agricultural practice where large herds of Texas cattle were brought to Kansas to be shipped to northern cities; declined as brutal weather, enclosure of the Midwest, and railways through Texas hit

Chinese Exclusion Act

A law that banned Chinese laborers from entering the U.S. due to job competition and anti-Chinese sentiment in 1882

Conservationalists

Advocated for in regulated and sustainable use and managaement of natural respources so they can balance human needs and environmental health

Cross of Gold Speech

Speech given by William Jennings Bryan when running for president in 1896 advocating for the free coinage of silver and criticizing the gold standard.

Dawes Act of 1887

This act sought to assimilate Native Americans by dividing tribal lands, encourage private land ownership and farming but led to the loss of tribal land and cultural erosion

Demand for sliver money

advocated by Populist Party, aimed to supplement gold currency and to boost money supply, foster economic growth, and assist farmers and debtors.

Effects of the California Gold Rush?

Massive migration to west, leading to the comprimise of 1850 to determine the population's social chnage to a free state.

Farmers' Alliances

Grassroots movements in the late 19th century, uniting farmers in the South and Midwest to combat economic challenges by advocating for political reforms like railroad rate regulations, currency inflation through silver coinage, and cooperative ventures to counter perceived exploitation by banks and corporations

Gospel of Wealth

Andrew Carnegie's ideology: Wealthy use fortunes for societal good, not personal excess.

grandfather clauses

If a persons grandfather was legally allowed to vote, then the person would also be allowed to vote. Used in the South to restrict voting for African-Americans

Granger Laws

Laws that were created through prominent farming movement that were designed to limit the amount that railroads could charge. Mostly in Minnesota, Iowa, Wisconsin, and Illinois.

Great American Desert

A term that referred to the vast, arid region of the Great Plains which were deemed unviable for settlement; settled anyways as transcontinental railroads built through them

Greenback Party

Advocated for increasing paper currency to benefit farmers and workers from economic struggles after the Civil War. Supported by farmers and laborers

Haymarket Bombing and significance

The Haymarket bombing was a violent incident during a labor rally in Chicago in 1886. It resulted in casualties and led to a crackdown on labor organizations, symbolizing tensions between labor and capital in the late 19th century

Helen Hunt Jackson; book; A Century of Dishonor

A book (and the author) published in 1881that talks about how Native American tribes were treated unfairly and poorly by the U.S. government during the 1800s.

Homestead Act

Gave free public land in the Great Plains to individuals who moved towards the West and attempted to farm there; incentivized migration to the west

Homestead Strike

Labor dispute at Carnegie Steel's Homestead plant in Pennsylvania. Workers protested wage cuts, leading to a violent clash with Pinkerton detectives hired by management. Labor defeat.

Horizontal Integration

Buying up all of the competition in order to form a monopoly, merges or buys other companies with same production service or goods & services

Ida B. Wells

A civil rights activist for racial equality and women's suffrage; journalist and confounded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

Indian Reorganization Act

Signed by President Franklin D Roosevelt, aimed to reverse harmful policies towards Native American tribes by promoting tribal self-government, preserving tribal lands, and advancing Native American culture and rights.

Transcontinental railroad

Railways that linked the East and West in the 19th century; helped build transportation and westward expansion

Interlocking directorate

When directors of two or more companies shared members to promote coordination, this brought controversy on the concerns of monopolistic market control

Interstate Commerce Act (1877)

the initial federal attempt to regulate the dominant railroad industry in the late 19th century, addressing public worries about monopolistic practices.

Jane Addams/Hull House

Progressive Era social reformer: Founded Chicago settlement house aiding immigrants/urban poor with social services and education

Jim Crow laws

State and local regulations in the United States from the late 19th to mid-20th century that enforced racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans in public facilities, schools, transportation, and voting

John Muir

Preservationist who advocated for environmental protection by creating the Sierra Club and National Park System

Laissez Faire

Philosophy where government wouldn't intervene in markets, economy or business operation

literacy tests

A discriminatory tool in the South during the Jim Crow era, used to suppress African American voting rights by assessing reading and writing skills

National Grange Movement

A late 19th-century organization advocating for farmers' interests through education, social activities, and political reforms.

New Immigrants from Europe

Europeans from Eastern and Southern Europe (Italy, Poland, and Ireland) who migrated to the United States primarily after the 1880s, led to high levels of nativism

Old Immigrants from Europe

Europeans from Northern and Western Europe (UK, Germany, and Norway) who migrated to the United States before the 1880s

Omaha Platform

a plan adopted by the populist party in 1892, advocating for reforms such as the unlimited coinage of silver, graduated income tax, direct election of senators, and regulations of railroads (pro farmer/labor policies)

Pendelton Act of 1881

required government jobs to be awarded to individuals based upon merit and not political affiliation

Plessy v Ferguson

The segregation in school systems by race was considered to be constitutional under the "seperate but equal" doctrine. This is a Supreme Court decision

political machines

Powerful organizations that controlled local governments through patronage, corruption and voter manipulation

poll taxes

Poll taxes were fees imposed on individuals to vote, historically used to disenfranchise (stop from voting) African Americans and poor whites until banned by the 24th Amendment in 1964.

Pool

An agreement among competing companies to fix prices and control production within an industry, often leading to harm of consumers

Populist Party

A political party in the 1890s representing farmers and laborers, advocating for reforms to empower ordinary citizens, challenge big business, and address economic inequality.

Preservationists

Belived in preserving natural areas from human interference

Pullman Strike

Reservation Policy

Confined Native American tribes to designated lands through forced treaties and relocations to facilitate westward expansion and segregate them from white settlers

Seneca Falls Convention

Meeting in 1848 that launched the U.S. women's suffrage movement, advocating for equal rights including voting, through the Declaration of Sentiments.

Settlement Housing

Crowded and run down housing in urban areas mainly used by immigrants and low-income residents during the Gilded Age

Sherman Anti-Trust Act

1890 U.S. law aiming to outlaw monopolies and promote competition by prohibiting activities that restrict interstate commerce and competition

Sierra Club

A prominent environmental organization for preserving and protecting natural spaces and conservation efforts, established national parks and led the movement to the Clean Air Act

Social Darwinism

The idea that only the fittest survive in the human political and economic struggle

Social Gospel Movement

Early 20th-century Protestant movement: Applying Christian principles to social reform, addressing poverty

Solid South

Political dominance of Democratic Party in the southern states in late 19th and early 20th centuries

State's Rights

Political doctrice asserting states autonomy within a federal system, emphasizing state soverignity and control over governance and policy makiing

Swift Refrigerated Railroad Cars

Specialized railcars developed by the Swift Meatpacking Company in the late 19th century, equipped with refrigeration to transport perishable goods like meat long distances without spoilage.

Tammany Hall

Dominant NYC Democratic political machine led by Boss Tweed, infamous for corruption and patronage

Temperance movement

Movement to stop alchoholism and address poverty, led to prohibition in 1919 banning alchohol in US

Tenaments apartments

Tenement apartments: Crowded, poorly maintained urban rental units, often small with shared facilities, associated with low-income populations ususally filled with immigrants

Turner's Frontier Thesis

Theory that proposed frontiers help ensure stability by allowing economically frustrated people to move west

Tuskegee Insitute

Tuskegee Institute, founded by Booker T. Washington in 1881, was a leading vocational school for African Americans, promoting self-reliance and practical education.

vertical integration

Company owns and controls the production and distribution within its industry through controlling the supply chain

WEB Du Bois

African American activist advocating for higher education of African Americans and civil rights through educational and political action

What happened to the buffalo herds by 1900?

The herds were killed off due to westward expansion, industrialization, and hunting pressures.

What inventions were made due to the steel production in the 19th century?

Railroads, steam engines, agricultural equipment such as the tractor and combine, factories, and skyscrapers

What were farmers in the 1870's economically affected by?

Falling crop prices, high transportation costs, and heavy debt, leading to agrarian unrest and the formation of farmer alliances and populist movements.

William Jennings Bryan

A prominent politician and orator known for advocating populism and progressivism, supporting the free coinage of silver.

Yellow Dog Contract

Agreement where employees promised not to join a labor union as a condition of their employment, often used to prevent workers from organizing for better conditions. They were made unenforceable by the Norris-LaGuardia Act of 1932.

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