Study Notes on Historians' Exposition of Early Scientists' Debt to the Slave Trade

By the early 1700s, European science was advancing rapidly, with significant contributions from influential figures and technological innovations.
Notable contributions include:
- Isaac Newton's publication of his theory of gravity.
- Telescopes were enhancing celestial studies.
- Microscopes developed by Robert Hooke and Antonie van Leeuwenhoek allowed for exploration of the microscopic world.
A diverse range of new plants and animals were being introduced to Europe from Asia and the Americas.

James Petiver, an apothecary and naturalist, was a significant figure at this time, although he is less well-known than his contemporaries.
Significance:
- Petiver had extensive connections within the slave trade, allowing him to acquire specimens efficiently.
- He did not often leave London, yet he managed a global network of ship surgeons and captains who collected specimens for him from colonies.
- He established a museum and research center that included these specimens.
- His work influenced other naturalists, including Carl Linnaeus, a pivotal figure in taxonomy.
It is estimated that between one-quarter and one-third of his collectors were involved in the slave trade, as it was one of the few ways to reach important locations in Africa and Latin America.

Modern historians reveal the deep interconnections between science and slavery, challenging the perception of science as purely a progressive force for good.
Prominent historians in this field:
- Kathleen Murphy from California Polytechnic State University emphasizes the essential relationship between slavery and scientific exploration, highlight the overlooked darker aspects of science’s history.
- James Delbourgo, from Rutgers University, notes that the focus on the progressive narrative of science has made critical examination of its past difficult.
Historians are analyzing scientific papers and records from slaving companies, finding numerous links between scientific ventures and the slave trade.

Many specimens collected through slavery still exist today in museums, such as the Natural History Museum in London, and continue to be used in research, despite the collectors often being unaware of their origins.
Murphy states that slave ships were unexpectedly spaces of natural history, facilitating the advancement of biological sciences while simultaneously being environments of immense human suffering.

The transatlantic slave trade lasted from the 1500s to the 1800s and was exceptionally brutal, with an estimated 10 million Africans enslaved.
- A significant number perished during transports to slave ports or on voyages across the Atlantic.
General conditions on slave ships were horrific:
- Enslaved people were shackled in cramped, unsanitary holds for extended periods.
- High mortality rates due to disease, malnutrition, and harsh punishments.
- Sharks would follow slave ships, opportunistically scouring for human remains thrown overboard.

Scientists aligned with the slave trade primarily for access to resources and locations critical for their research.
While European governments occasionally funded expeditions, most ventures relied on private ships engaged in the triangular trade, which involved sending manufactured goods to Africa, enslaving individuals, and returning with raw materials to Europe.
Consequently, scientists frequently traveled on slave ships to conduct research, seeking out new species and other natural curiosities.

Many naturalists, including Petiver, enlisted the aid of ship surgeons and crew members on these vessels to collect specimens, often working under the guise of the slave operations happening on board.
Henry Smeathman, an idealistic naturalist, epitomizes these moral compromises. He traveled to Sierra Leone to study the local wildlife while depending upon slave traders for sustenance and support, ultimately becoming part of the system he initially opposed.

Not all scientists remained committed to their original principles when faced with the realities of the trade. For instance, Smeathman justified working with slavers to enhance his research capabilities, ultimately trading slaves for supplies for his research endeavors.
The specimens collected were treated poorly, often arriving in England damaged due to negligence by crews prone to “smash” specimens out of carelessness or malice.
However, the shipping of specimens alongside enslaved individuals was not uncommon, as most sales required ships to return via the Caribbean.

Many specimens collected from the slave trade formed their way into major European museums and research facilities, such as the British Museum and Natural History Museum.
Specimens have immense scientific value, enabling research in biodiversity, ecology, and historical science.
Noteworthy collections:
- Smeathman's contributions included 600 species of plants and 710 insect species, often counted in multiples.
- Museums today continue to use these collections despite little being known about the origins.

Museums and curators face the challenge of reconciling their collections' histories with contemporary practices.
- There is a growing call for acknowledgment of the origins of specimens, emphasizing their significance in shaping modern scientific understanding.
Recognizing how specimens were obtained can refine scientific analyses and provide context for research.
- Ongoing conversations linked to funds and reparations highlight the dual legacy of slavery and science in shaping contemporary issues in social justice and historical reckoning.

Historians are beginning to understand and acknowledge that the development of modern science and the institution of slavery are intertwined narratives of history.
Scholars assert that recognizing how science benefited from the exploitation of enslaved peoples is crucial to understanding the full scope of historical and modern scientific practices.