Bsf Final Exam May 4, 2026.

Foundations of the Body

  • Positioning Terms:
      - Supine: lying on back
      - Prone: lying on stomach
      - Fowler’s position: semi-sitting posture
      - Lateral: side-lying position

  • Skin Layers:
      - Epidermis: provides protection to the body
      - Dermis: contains blood vessels and nerves
      - Subcutaneous layer: composed of fat for insulation and energy storage

  • Types of Tissues:
      - Epithelial Tissue: covers surfaces, lines cavities
      - Connective Tissue: supports and binds other tissues
      - Muscle Tissue: responsible for movement
      - Nervous Tissue: transmits impulses for communication

  • Body Cavities:
      - Dorsal Cavity: houses the brain and spinal cord
      - Ventral Cavity: subdivided into thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities

  • Burn Classification:
      - 1st Degree: redness, minor pain
      - 2nd Degree: blisters present
      - 3rd Degree: full thickness, may be painless due to nerve damage

  • pH Range:
      - Normal arterial blood pH: 7.35 - 7.45

  • Key Concepts:
      - ATP: primary energy source for cellular processes
      - Negative Feedback: mechanism for maintaining homeostasis by counteracting changes in the body

  • Body Systems Overview:
      - Nervous System: transmits signals between different body parts
      - Cardiovascular System: transports blood and nutrients
      - Respiratory System: facilitates gas exchange
      - Digestive System: processes food for energy
      - Urinary System: eliminates waste and regulates water balance
      - Endocrine System: regulates bodily functions through hormones

Skeletal & Muscular System

  • Bone Types:
      - Long Bones: for movement and support (e.g., femur)
      - Short Bones: provide stability (e.g., carpals)
      - Flat Bones: protect organs (e.g., skull)
      - Irregular Bones: specialized shapes (e.g., vertebrae)

  • Bone Structure:
      - Diaphysis: the shaft of the long bone
      - Epiphysis: the ends of the long bone
      - Marrow: the tissue within bone where blood cells are produced

  • Types of Joints:
      - Fibrous Joints: immovable (e.g., skull sutures)
      - Cartilaginous Joints: slightly movable (e.g., intervertebral discs)
      - Synovial Joints: freely movable (e.g., knee, elbow)

  • Muscle Types:
      - Skeletal Muscle: voluntary, striated muscles attached to bones
      - Smooth Muscle: involuntary, non-striated, found in organs
      - Cardiac Muscle: involuntary, striated, found in the heart

  • Growth Plate Closure:
      - Signifies the transition to adulthood when bone growth has concluded

Nervous & Endocrine Systems

  • Neurons:
      - Neurons are the primary cells that transmit electrical impulses in the nervous system
      - Glial Cells: support and protect neurons

  • Brain Structures:
      - Cerebrum: responsible for thought and voluntary actions
      - Cerebellum: coordinates balance and movement
      - Brainstem: controls vital functions (e.g., heart rate, breathing)

  • Central Nervous System (CNS) vs Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
      - CNS: Includes the brain and spinal cord
      - PNS: Includes all nerves that branch from the CNS to the rest of the body

  • Eye Anatomy:
      - Retina: contains light-sensitive cells
      - Cornea: transparent front covering
      - Lens: focuses light onto the retina

  • Ear Anatomy:
      - Cochlea: involved in hearing
      - Semicircular Canals: involved in balance

  • Endocrine Glands:
      - Pituitary Gland: regulates other endocrine glands also called the master gland
      - Thyroid Gland: regulates metabolism
      - Adrenal Glands: respond to stress
      - Pancreas: regulates blood sugar levels

Cardiovascular System

  • Components of Blood Cells:
      - Red Blood Cells (RBC): transport oxygen
      - White Blood Cells (WBC): responsible for immunity
      - Platelets: involved in blood clotting

  • Heart Anatomy:
      - Right Atrium (RA): receives deoxygenated blood from the body
      - Right Ventricle (RV): pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs
      - Left Atrium (LA): receives oxygenated blood from the lungs
      - Left Ventricle (LV): pumps oxygenated blood to the body

  • Valves in the Heart:
      - Tricuspid Valve: between RA and RV
      - Mitral Valve: between LA and LV
      - Aortic Valve: between LV and aorta
      - Pulmonary Valve: between RV and pulmonary artery

  • Blood Flow Sequence:
      - Body → RA → RV → Lungs → LA → LV → Body

  • Electrical Conduction Pathway:
      - SA Node: pacemaker of the heart
      - AV Node: receives impulses from SA and transmits to ventricles
      - Bundle of His: conducts impulses to ventricles

  • Cardiovascular Conditions:
      - Hypertension: high blood pressure
      - Heart Failure: reduced ability of the heart to pump blood
      - Arrhythmias: irregular heart rhythms

Immune & Respiratory Systems

  • Types of Immunity:
      - Innate Immunity: first line of defense, non-specific
      - Adaptive Immunity: specific responses to pathogens

  • Components of the Lymphatic System:
      - Lymph Nodes: filter lymph fluid and house immune cells
      - Spleen: filters blood, helps fight infection
      - Thymus: site of T cell maturation

  • Airway Pathway for Breathing:
      - Nose → Pharynx → Larynx → Trachea → Lungs

  • Lung Anatomy:
      - Pleura: membranes that surround and protect the lungs

  • Defensive Mechanisms:
      - Skin: acts as a barrier to pathogens
      - Inflammation: localized response to injury or infection
      - Antibodies: proteins that neutralize pathogens

Urinary & Digestive Systems

  • Functional Unit of the Kidney:
      - Nephron: responsible for urine formation and filtration

  • Structures of the Urinary System:
      - Kidneys: filter blood and produce urine
      - Ureters: transport urine from kidneys to bladder
      - Bladder: stores urine
      - Urethra: kidney to outside of body

  • Hormones Involved in Fluid Balance:
      - ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone): regulates water balance
      - Aldosterone: helps regulate sodium and potassium levels
      - ANP (Atrial Natriuretic Peptide): decreases blood volume and pressure
      - Parathyroid Hormone: regulates calcium levels

  • Electrolyte Ranges:
      - Sodium (Na): 135 – 145 mEq/L
      - Potassium (K): 3.5 – 5.3 mEq/L

  • Chloride 97-107

  • Phosphate 2.5-4.5

  • Calcium 8.2-10.2

  • Buffers:
      - Maintain blood pH through neutralization of acids and bases

  • Digestive Pathway:
      - Mouth → Stomach → Small Intestines → Large Intestines

Reproductive System & Pregnancy

  • Male Reproductive Hormones:
      - Testosterone: produced in testes, essential for male reproductive development

  • Meiosis:
      - The process that forms gametes (sperm and egg cells)

  • Fertilization Process:
      - Occurs when sperm meets egg

  • Trimesters of Pregnancy:
      - 1st Trimester: organ formation
      - 2nd Trimester: rapid growth
      - 3rd Trimester: development and preparation for birth

  • Fetal Development Milestones:
      - Heartbeat: detectable around 6 weeks
      - Fetal Movement: perceptible by mother around 16-20 weeks

  • Placenta Functionality:
      - Facilitates gas exchange between maternal and fetal blood

  • Umbilical Cord Composition:
      - Composed of 2 arteries and 1 vein responsible for nutrient transfer

  • Maternal Changes During Pregnancy:
      - Increased blood volume and cardiac output throughout pregnancy